PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS 

OF  THE  SCHOOL 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


' 


[/(/  I/k 


PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS 
OF  THE  SCHOOL 


BY 
HARMON  EBERT  WAITS,  A.M. 


SUPERINTENDENT  OF    SCHOOLS 
LUDINGTON,  MICHIGAN 


BENJ.  H.  SANBORN  &  CO. 

CHICAGO  NEW    YORK  BOSTON 

1920 


Copyright,  1920, 
BY  BENJ.  H.  SANBORN  &  CO. 


Education 

Libmz 

L& 

10  zg- 

/i//3-^J- 
PREFACE 

THIS  book  is  the  outgrowth  of  several  years  of  experience  in 
attempting  to  meet  and  to  help  other  teachers  meet  the  routine 
problems  of  the  school.  The  ami  in  writing  the  book  is  to 
present  in  a  practical  form  that  large  group  of  essential  facts 
with  which  every  teacher  must  be  familiar  in  order  to  avoid 
serious  mistakes  in  the  management  of  a  school.  The  facts  are 
presented  in  the  manner  and  spirit  in  which  the  author  has 
found  it  necessary  for  the  rank  and  file  of  teachers.  The 
subject-matter  is  made  as  definite  and  specific  as  possible  with 
the  thought  that  many  teachers  with  limited  experience  are 
likely  to  be  benefited  more  hi  the  beginning  by  specific  direction 
than  they  are  by  a  general  discussion  of  educational  principles. 
The  need  for  much  specific  discussion  seems  evident  when  we 
consider  that  at  all  times  more  than  fifty  per  cent  of  the  public 
school  teachers  are  practically  inexperienced,  and  many  other 
teachers  teach  year  after  year  with  no  assistance  from  a  super- 
intendent. 

While  there  has  been  no  attempt  to  make  the  book  a  treatise 
on  pedagogy,  an  attempt  has  been  made  in  the  book  to  carry  a 
practical  discussion  of  educational  principles  and  so  to  concrete 
them  that  the  reader  may  become  familiar  with  them  and  grasp 
the  underlying  spirit  of  the  school. 

If  through  the  study  of  this  book  a  few  teachers  may  be  able 
to  lay  a  foundation  for  a  broader  growth  hi  teaching,  and  shall 
become  better  able  to  discriminate  a  little  more  closely  between 
those  things  which  are  vital  and  those  which  are  only  of  slight 
consequence,  the  author  will  feel  amply  repaid  for  his  efforts. 

H.  E.  W. 

Ludington,  Michigan 
March.  1920 


iii 


887435 


CONTENTS 
CHAPTER  I 

FAOX 

A  PROSPECTIVE  VIEW        .  1-13 

I.     The  Teacher's  Work  Fundamental  .  1 

a.  The  variety  of  schools 

b.  The  character  of  activities  dependent 

upon  the  school 

II.     Seeking  the  Magical 2 

a.  The  work  of  the  school  accomplished 

by  labor 
HI.     Diversity  among  Children 3 

a.  Some  causes  of  diversity 

b.  Responsibility  of  the  school 

IV.     Reaching  the  Individual 3 

a.  Making  the  school  elastic 

b.  Types  of  special  schools 

c.  Method  of  attack  in  the  small  school 

V.     Phenomenal  Results 5 

a.  Obtained  only  by  [neglect  of  other  sub- 

jects 

b.  Counting  the  cost 

c.  An  illustration  of  bad  balance 

VI.     The  Early  Years 7 

a.  Doing  fundamental  things  from  the  start 

b.  A  wrong  start  a  handicap  in  the  upper 

grade 
VII.     Kinds  of  Criticism 9 

a.  From  the  profession 

b.  Appreciating  others 

Results  the  Test  of  Theories      ....       10 
a.  Start  with  facts,  not  conclusions 


vl  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  II 

MM 

THE  FIRST  DAY  OF  SCHOOL 14-31 

I.    Importance  of  a  Good  Beginning       .        .       .       14 

a.  Attitude  of  people  determined  largely 
by  the  beginning 

II.     Preparation  for  the  First  Day     .        .       .       .       14 
a.  Necessity  for  preparation   before   the 
opening 

III.  Sources  of  Information        ....  15 

a.  The  school  records 

b.  The  former  teacher 

IV.  The  Course  of  Study 16 

a.  Becoming  familiar  with  it 

b.  Adjusting  the  program  to  it 

V.     Classification  of  Pupils 17 

a.  Classification  before  the  beginning 

b.  Organizing  the  classes    before    school 

begins 

VI.     Pronunciation  of  Names 18 

a.  Necessity  for  accuracy 

b.  How  to  be  certain 

VII.     The  Program 19 

a.  Importance  of  the  program 

b.  How  it  should  be  made  out 

c.  Arranging  the  time  for  the  classes 

VIII.     The  Rules  and  Regulations        ....       21 

a.  Unenforced  regulations 

b.  Following  the  regulations 

IX.     Supplies  for  the  Pupils 22 

a.  Ordering  before  school 

b.  Providing  supplies  for  the  first  day  and 

week 


CONTENTS  vii. 

TAOX 

X.    The  School  Plant .22 

a.  Visiting  before  the  opening  of  school 

b.  Attention  necessary  before  the  first  day 

c.  Influence  of  the  surroundings 

XI.     Arranging  Details 25 

a.  Getting  to  school  the  first  morning 

b.  Everything  ready 

XII.     The  First  Morning 25 

a.  Disposition  of  early  arrivals 

b.  Disposition  of  new  pupils 

XIII.  Beginning  Pupils 28 

a.  Limiting  according  to  age 

XIV.  Putting  Pupils  Back 28 

a.  The  danger  of  haste 

b.  The  period  of  trial 

CHAPTER  III 
POINT  OF  VIEW  IN  DISCIPLINE      ....         32-50 

I.     Importance  of  Good  Discipline  ....       32 

a.  The  most  important  question 

b.  A    close    relation    between    discipline 

and  quality  of  work 
x.  Two  types  of  teachers  in  same 
school 

n.     Ability  to  Control  Acquired 34 

a.  Must  study  discipline  as   one  studies 

arithmetic 

b.  Must  have  a  plan 

III.     Ignoring  the  Question 35 

a.  This  type  of  teacher  long  on  phrases 

x.  He  is  analogous  to  the  weak 
public  official 


viii  CONTENTS 

PACK 

IV.    Hiding  behind  Defenses 35 

a.  Training  for  a  democracy 

b.  Decrying  discipline  as  despotism 

c.  All  good  may  become  evils 

V.     "Adolescence"  and  Other  Excuses        .        .       37 

a.  Some  teachers  prone  to  make  excuses 

b.  Teacher    can    not  shift  responsibility 

for  results  of  his  own  shortcomings 

VI.     Theory  vs.  Reality  in  Discipline      ...       38 
a.  The  visit  to  the  school  of  the  advocate 
of  freedom 
x.  The  study  hall 

y.  Quality  of  work  in  the  recitation 
,  z.  The  scenes  in  the  office 

VII.     Three  General  Conclusions      ....       42 

a.  Teacher  has  the  discipline  he  stands  for 

b.  Strong  discipline  easier  than  medium 

c.  Quality  of  discipline  augments  its  own 

kind 

VIII.     Mistaken  Notions  Concerning  Discipline       .       43 

a.  Some  think  it  is  indirect 

b.  Some  think  it  is  direct 

IX.     Not  Just  a  Question  of  Interest      ...       44 

a.  Discipline  and  interest  are  mutual 

b.  One  cannot  interest  those  in  disorder 

X.     Not  a  Question  of  Keeping  Pupils  Busy        .       44 

a.  The  pupils  who  are  the  best  supplied 

are  sometimes  disorderly 

b.  This  is  a  contributing  element 

XI.     Not  Identical  with  Instructional  Skill     .        .       45 
a.  Poor  teachers  often  good  in  discipline 

XII.     Not  a  Question  of  Sanitation  .  .45 


CONTENTS  ix 


XIII.  Not  a  Question  of  the  Weather      ...       46 

a.  Strong  disciplinarians  are  insensible  to 
weather  changes 

XIV.  Not  the'Former  Teacher's  Fault     ...       46 

a.  No  way  to  discipline  a  school  so  it  will 
stay  disciplined  for  the  weak  successor 

XV.     Parental  Co-operation       .....       46 
a.  Parents  prone  to  side  with  children 
x.  Example 

XVI.     General  Co-operation  is  Necessary  for  Strong 

Discipline    .......       48 

a.  The  elements  involved  in  control 

b.  Causes  for  variation  in  ability 

XVII.     Division  of  the  Subject     .....       48 

CHAPTER  IV 
DISCIPLINE  IN  THE  ROOM       .....         51-67 

I.     Govern  without  Show        .        .        .        .        .       51 
a.  Refrain  from  discussing  evils 
x.  Avoid  lecturing 

H.     Seating  of  the  Pupils  ......       51 

a.  Teacher  should  select  seats 

b.  Provision  for  troublesome  pupils 

III.  Leaving  Seats  without  Permission         .       .       52 

a.  Privileges  which  may  be  allowed 

IV.  Leaving  the  Room     ......       53 

a.  Permission  to  be  required  of  all  pupils 

b.  Number  of  permissions  to  be  granted 

at  a  time 

c.  Punishing  pupils  for  asking  permission 


CONTENTS 

PACE 

V.     Use  of  the  Waste  Basket         ....       54 

a.  The  wrong  way 

b.  The  right  way 

VI.     Only  One  Pupil  to  a  Seat.  ...       55 

a.  Relying  upon  others  for  books 
x.  Disadvantage 
y.  The  remedy 

VII.     Sharpening  Pencils 55 

a.  Borrowing  knives  a  bad  practice 

b.  How  to  provide  for  pencils 

VIII.     No  Communication  without  Permission        .       56 

a.  Communication  the  source  of  many  dis- 

orders 

b.  Should     be     prohibited     because     it 

prevents  concentration 

c.  Not  impossible  to  prohibit 

IX.     Leaving  the  Room  without  Supervision.  58 

a.  Disorder  is  reflexive 
'b.  Medium    teachers     should     not     try 
•  methods  of  superior  ones 

X.    Influence  of  the  Substitute      ...  59 

a.  No  incompetent  person  should  substi- 

.  tute 

b.  Good  habits  are  easily  broken 

XI.     Some  Common  but  Bad  Practices  of  Teachers       59 

a.  Calling  over  the  heads 

b.  Evil  of  foolish  remarks 

c.  Using  the  school  for  question  boxes 

XII.     The  Manner  of  the  Teacher     ....       61 

a.  The  school  the  reflection  of  the  teacher 

b.  The  handling  of  materials  and  move- 

ments to  be  quiet 


CONTENTS  xi 

PAGE 

XIII.  Preparation  for  the  Day's  Work      ...       62 

a.  Teacher  prepared  for  work  before  the 

day  begins 

b.  Correcting  papers  should  be  done  at 

home 

XIV.  Provide  Definite  Work 63 

a.  Provide  tasks  and  call  for  them 

b.  Hold  pupils  for  it  if  they  neglect  duty 

XV.     Make  the  Pupils  Comfortable          ...       63 

a.  Seating  pupils  in  proper  seats 

b.  Position  as  regards  the  light 

c.  The  temperature 

d.  The  ventilation 

XVI.     Relaxation  Exercises 65 

a.  Frequency  of  exercise 

b.  Kinds  of  exercise. 

XVII.     Prevention  of  Idleness 66 

a.  Careful  supervision  of  study  period 

b.  Symptoms  of  idleness 

CHAPTER  V 
MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  CLASS        .        .        .  68-81 

I.     Signals 68 

a.  Good  signals 

b.  The  bell 

H.     Seating  of  the  Class 69 

a.  Every  pupil  should  have  his  definite  seat 

b.  Seat  the  class  compactly 

c.  Seating  pupils  of  weak  attention 

d.  Seating  defective  pupils 

e.  Pupils  reciting  in  the  regular  seats 


xii  CONTENTS 


III.  Position  of  the  Teacher  with  Reference  to  the 

Class 70 

a.  Front  position  the  best 

b.  Standing  or  sitting 

IV.  Position  of  Pupils  Reciting       .        .        .        .       71 

a.  Usually  best  to  stand 

b.  The  rule  should  be  broken  in  special 

instances 

V.     Passing  Supplies 71 

a.  The  use  of  monitors 

b.  Objectionable  methods 

c.  Passing  pencils 

VI.     Showing  Pictures  and  Illustrations.        .        .       72 

a.  Passing  the  picture  along  the  aisle 

b.  Calling  the  pupils  by  groups 

c.  The  evil  of  crowding  around  the  teacher 

VII.     Passing  Classes  to  the  Board  ....       73 

a.  Should  have  definite  positions  at  the 

board 

b.  Methods  of  passing  the  classes 

c.  Keeping  the  boards  clean 

VIII.     Answering  without  Permission        ...       73 

a.  Recitation  must  be  under  the  control  of 

the  teacher 

b.  How  the  habit  arises 

c.  How  to  break  the  habit 

IX.     Remove  Distracting  Stimuli     ....        74 

a.  Freeing  the  desks  of  irrelevant  material 

b.  Reciting  with  closed  books 

c.  Interruptions  should  not  be  tolerated 

x.  Messengers  and  questions    from 
pupils 

d.  Mixture  of  oral  and  written  work  an  evil 


CONTENTS  xiii 

PAGE 

X.     Plan  and  Preparation  of  the  Teacher  im.       .       76 

a.  Teacher  must  know  the  lesson 

b.  The  use  of  the  general  thought  question 

XI.     Preparation  of  the  Pupils         .        .       .        .       77 

a.  Familiarity  with  lesson  necessary  to  at- 

tention 

b.  Teacher  should  avoid  reciting 

c.  Teacher  should  call  for  the  assignment 

XII.     Method  of  Conducting  the  Recitation    .        .       78 
a.  Conduct  recitation  so  that  attention 
is  necessary 

x.  Illustration  from  arithmetic 
y.  Avoid  long  recitation  and  ex- 
clusive attention  to  one  pupil 

CHAPTER  VI 
MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  PLAYGROUND        .        .         82-88 

I.     Supervision  Necessary 82 

a.  Prevent  difficulties  rather  than  adjust 

them 

b.  Participation  in  play  a  good  thing 

II.     Working  at  Recess 83 

a.  Recess  periods  should  not  be  used  for 

work 

x.  Teacher  needs  the  recreation 
y.  Pupils  should  not  be  deprived 
of  recreation 

b.  Correcting  work  at  this   time   is   ob- 

jectionable 

III.     Keeping  Pupils  in  at  Recess    ....       84 
a.  Objectionable,  whether  for  punishment 
or  to  make  up  work 

x.  Unfits   pupils   for  work  during 
the  session 


riv  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

b.  Poor  lessons  not  always  the  fault  of 
the  pupil 
x.  Causes   should   be  determined 

and  proper  remedies  applied 
IV.     Remove  Suggestive  Objects    ....       84 

a.  Teacher  should  inspect  the  ground  daily 

x.  Dangers  from  Hallowe'en 
y.  Accumulations  over  Sunday 

b.  Illustrations 

x.  The  wheel;  the  whisky  bottle 

c.  Putting  suggestions  into  practice 

x.  The  Wild  West  incident 
V.     Teaching  New  Games 86 

a.  Occupation  is  the  best  means  of  control 

b.  Simple  equipment 

VI.     Equipment  of  the  Ground        ....       86 

a.  Some  popular  equipment 

b.  Some  popular  games 

VH.     Benefits  of  Play 89 

a.  The  best  health  tonic 

x.  Present-day  needs  require  special 
emphasis  on  it 

b.  Play  is  educative 

c.  Play  is  a  moral  safeguard 

CHAPTER  VII 
PUNISHMENT  89-107 

I.     Publicity  Objectionable 89 

a.  The  evil  of  lecturing 

b.  The  evil  of  punishing  in  public 

II      Improper  Punishments 90 

a.  Punishments  that  are  wrong  in  spirit 

b.  Tying  cloths  over  the  mouth,  washing 


CONTENTS 


out  the  mouth,  placing  with  the 
opposite  sex,  fatiguing  punish- 
ments, forced  apologies 

III.  Low  Grading  as  a  Punishment        ...       93 

a.  Scholarship  and  conduct  to  be  rated 

independently 

b.  Motives  for  conduct  to  be  examined 

and  met 

IV.  Appealing  in  Improper  Ways   ....       94 
V.     Use  of  Tact 95 

a.  Illustration   of  avoiding  the  necessity 

for  punishment 

b.  Removing  temptation 

c.  Finding  the  guilty 

VI.     On  Being  Annoyed .96 

a.  Inviting  trouble 

b.  Illustration  of  letting  an  evil  exhaust 

itself 
VII.     Corporal  Punishment 97 

a.  Its  limitations 

b.  Its  relation  to  strong  discipline 

c.  Seeking  the  cause  for  its  necessity 

d.  Treatment  of  upper-grade  pupils 
Punishing  the  Teacher 99 

IX.     Detention  as  a  Means  of  Punishment    .        .       99 

a.  When  to  detain 

b.  Character  of  the  work  to  be  done 

c.  Offenses  which  may  be  thus  punished 

X.     Isolation  as  a  Means  of  Punishment      .  101 

a.  Method  of  last  resort 
XI.     Sending  Pupils  Home 102 

a.  The  evil 

b.  The  parent's  attitude 


xvi  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

XII.     Resorting  to  Higher  Authority.        .        .        .     103 

a.  Teacher  should  solve  his  own  problems 

alone 

b.  The  use  of  higher  authority 

XIII.     Teacher's  Relation  to  the  Parent    .        .       .     103 

a.  Holding  the  pupil  to  account 

b.  Manner  of  conferring  with  the  parent 

XTV.     Complaining  to  the  Parent       ....     105 
a.  Reporting  outside  matter 

XV.     Ridicule,  Sarcasm,  and  Irony  .       «       *       .     106 

CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  ASSIGNMENT 108-123 

I.     Importance  of  the  Assignment         .        .        .     108 

a.  The  efficiency  of  teacher  shown  in  the 

assignment 

b.  The  greater  part  of  school  evils  springs 

from  assignments 

II .     Preparation  of  the  Teacher  for  the  Assignment     1 08 

a.  Adjustment   of   lesson  to  ability  and 

age  of  class 

b.  Teacher  must  be  familiar  with  lesson 

c.  Teacher  should  imagine  himself  in  the 

place  of  the  pupil 

m.     Preparation  of  the  Pupils  for  the  Assignment       110 

a.  Should  know  how  to  proceed 

x.  Book  explanations  are  inade- 
quate 

b.  Illustration   from    an    assignment    in 

Merchant  of  Venice 

c.  Elimination    of   lost    time   the    great 

need  of  the  school 


CONTENTS  xvii 

FAOS 

IV.     How  Much  Aid  to  Give  the  Pupils.        .        .     112 

a.  Some  aid  is  imperative  with   certain 

pupils 

x.  Difficult  to  make  the  required 
adjustment 

b.  Much  loss  of  time  results  from  neglect 

V.     Getting  the  Assignment  from  the  Text  .        .113 

a.  Pupils  must  be  taught  to  master  the 

text 

x.  Young  pupils  need  the  aid 
y.  All  new  subjects  require  special 
aid 

b.  Supplement  the  text  with  oral  instruc- 

tion 

VI.     Adapting  the  Text  to  the  Pupils      .        .        .116 

a.  Some  common  faults  and  limitations  of 

texts 

b.  Following  the  book  may  be  an  evil 

c.  Spirit  of  attack  should  guide  the  teacher 

VII.     Making  the  Assignment  Definite     .        .        .      118 

a.  Every  pupil  should  know  what  is  re- 

quired 

b.  Outside  matter  should  be  obtainable 

c.  How  to  pro  vide  for  inadequate  reference 

d.  Inquiring  from  others  a  loose  injunction 

Yin.     Length  of  the  Assignment         .        .        .        .119 

a.  Easy  to  underestimate  the  time  required 

for  assignment 

x.  Guarding  against  this  mistake 

b.  Illustration  of  overassignment 

c.  Augmenting    the    difficulty     through 

threats 

d.  Evil  of  assigning  by  pages 


xviii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  IX 

PACK 

EVERYDAY  PROBLEMS  IN  INSTRUCTION  .       .     124-159 

I.     The  Question  of  Method         .       .  .  .124 

a.  Overstressing  the  importance  of  a 

particular  method 

II.     Some  Definite  Method  Needed      .  .  .125 
a.  Teacher    should   follow  conventional 
methods  at  the  start 

III.  Some  Tests  of  a  Good  Method       .  .  .     125 

a.  Good  methods  may  not  be  apparent 
for  a  long  time 

x.  Illustrated  from  writing,  read- 
ing, music 

y.  Frequent  change  in    method 
is  an  evil 

IV.  Similarity  of  Treatment  of  Subjects       .       .     127 

a.  Analysis  of  subject-matter  into  simple 
units 

x.  Illustration  from  arithmetic 

V.     The  Question  of  Interest         .       .       .        .128 
a.  Difference betweeninterest  and  enter- 
tainment 

x.  Illustrated  from  algebra 
VI.     Relative  Value  of  Subjects       .        .       .       .129 

a.  Dependent  upon  the  way  in  which 

they  are  taught 

b.  Attitude  of  mind  is  more  important 

than  the  facts  of  a  subject 
x.  Illustration    from    reasoning 
cube  root 

c.  Rules  of  procedure  are  of  little  value 

x.  Illustration 

d.  The  scientific  attitude  is  the  rule  in 

and  out  of  school 


CONTENTS  xix 

PAGE 

VII.     Quantity  Is  Not  Power 131 

a.  Making   a   record   in  quantity  does 
not  assure  quality 

x.  Reading  a  given  number  of 

books 
y.  Solving   a  given    number    of 

problems 
VIII.     Experience  the  Basis  of  Teaching  .  .     132 

a.  Books  often  fail  at  this  point 

b.  The  attempt  of  children   to   supply 

experience  by  pictures 

c.  Apperception   followed   in   every  at- 

tempt to  convey  knowledge 

IX.     Presenting  a  New  Topic 134 

a.  Include  as  little  as  possible  in  explana- 

tion 

b.  Keep  close  to  the  child's  vocabulary 

X.     Forms  and  Illustrations 134 

a.  Illustrations  should  be  in  correct  form 

b.  Should  be  incapable  of  misinterpre- 

tation 

x.  their  and  there 
XI.     Irrelevant  Illustrations 135 

a.  Illustration  from  fractions 

b.  Placing   intervening  conceptions  be- 

tween pupil  and  subject 
x.  Illustration  from  music 

XII.     Testing  the  Content  of  the  Mind    .        .        .      136 

a.  The  mental  content  of  the  mind  deter- 

mines interpretation 

x.  Illustrations  from  reading 

b.  Pupils  interpret  statements  literally 

x.  "Lay  me  down" 

y.  The  movement  of  the  earth 


xx  CONTENTS 


XIII.  Reality  in  Instruction       .       .       .       .       .     139 

a.  Things  should  be  dealt  with  as  they  are 

x.  Fanciful  methods  are  mislead- 
ing 

b.  Instructing  a  class  in  borrowing 

c.  Teaching  false  names  of  figures 

d.  Teaching   phonics   by   animate   and 

inanimate  things 

e.  The  map  in  geography  to  hang  right 

XIV.  The  Conventional  Form 142 

a.  Making   figures   and   letters  in   the 

conventional  way 

b.  Teaching  terms  to  be  discarded 

c.  Conforming     to     convention     is     a 

necessity 

XV.     Learning  to  Do  by  Doing         ....     143 

a.  Inaccuracy  of  knowledge  shown  by 

application 

b.  Principles  should  be  applied  at  once 

x.  Illustrations  from  arithmetic, 
language,  etc. 

c.  Application  clarifies  knowledge 

XVI.     Developing  from  the  Class       ....     145 

a.  A  clear  explanation  is  needed  in  place 

of  a  long  fatiguing  one 
x.  Illustration  from  word  develop- 
ment 

b.  The  answer  from  one  pupil  is  not 

class  development 

XVH.     Concert  Work 147 

a.  The  quality  of  concert  work   easily 
misjudged 

x.  Repeating  is  common 
y.  Repeaters  illustrated  in  music 


CONTENTS  xxi 


b.  Some  board  work  is  of  the  concert 

type 
XVIII.     Proper  Direction  vs.  Driving    .        .        .        .149 

a.  Lack  of  preparation  of  a  class  should 

be  suggestive 

b.  A  change  of  method  may  result  in  a 

great  change 

x.  Illustration  from  spelling 
XIX.     Liking  the  Subject 151 

a.  Liking  the  subject  is  partly  teacher 

and  partly  pupil 

b.  Teacher  should   find  the    secret    of 

successful  teachers 

XX.     Variation  in  Aptitudes 152 

a.  Sometimes  certain   qualities   run   in 
families 

XXI.     Studying  the  Individual 153 

a.  Some  pupils  can  keep  up  only  with 
special  help 

x.  How  to  give  the  special  help 
XXII.     Qualities  Better  Than  Knowledge  .        .        .153 

a.  Technical  facts  not  a  test  of  a  school 

b.  Formal  moral  phrases  not  a  test  of 

morals 

XXIII.  Beautiful  but  Useless 154 

a.  The  test  of  a  thing  is  its  value 

b.  Introducing  things  the  teacher  likes 

x.  French  and  Spanish 

XXIV.  Form  Does  Not  Determine  Content       .       .     155 

a.  Imitating  another  teacher  illustrated 
from  writing 

XXV.     Holding  What  is  Taught 156 

a.  Frequent     return    to     fundamental 
lines  of  the  subject 


CONTENTS 
CHAPTER  X 

PAGE 

CONDUCTING  THE  RECITATION    ....     160-188 

I.     Purpose  of  the  Recitation 160 

a.  Function  of  the  recitation 

b.  Quality  of  school  depends  upon  it 

c.  It  reveals  the  professional  viewpoint  of 

the  teacher 
II.    Recitation  Should  Have  a  Plan       .        .       .160 

a.  Requires  time  and  thought   to  deter- 

mine it 

b.  Mere  incidents  carry  away  the  teacher 

without  a  plan 

c.  Pupils  are  not  good  guides  for  a  reci- 

tation 

x.  Things  that  influence  choice 
y.  Tricks  of  older  pupils 

III.  Springing  Surprises 162 

a.  Pupils  should  know  the  entire  require- 

ment of  recitation 

b.  Springing  surprises  is  not  teaching 

IV.  Use  of  the  Text  in  the  Recitation   .       .       .162 

a.  Teacher  must  grasp  lesson  as  a  unit 

b.  The  question  should  be  toward  vital 

things 

c.  Not  always  a  good  plan  to  follow  a  text 

V.     Fragmentary  Teaching 163 

a.  All  instruction  should  be  connected 

b.  Teacher  should  have  in  mind  a  clear 

conception  of  fundamentals 

c.  Rounding-up  periods  are  a  good  thing 

VI.     Overworking  the  Bright  Pupil          .        .        .165 

a.  The  device  in  arithmetic — thinking  of 

two  numbers 

b.  Better  devices  for  drill 


CONTENTS  xxiii 


c.  Objection  to  "spelling  down" 

d.  Reading  until  a  mistake  is  made 

e.  The  volunteer  recitation 

VH.     Working  All  the  Pupils 168 

a.  A  good  test  of  the  teacher 

b.  Illustration  from  seventh-grade  reading 

m.     Profiting  through  Doing 170 

a.  The  principle  is  one  of  the  oldest 

b.  Teacher  should  train  pupils  to  do  for 

themselves 

c.  Results  may  deceive  the  teacher 

d.  Illustrations  from  music 

x.  Singing  with  pupils 
y.  Beating  time 

e.  Explanation  of  a  problem 

f.  Pronouncing  words  for  the  pupils 

g.  Every  pupil  should  recite  every  day  as 

much  as  possible  of  lesson 
IX.     Wasteful  Methods 175 

a.  Walking  to  the  front,  rising 

b.  Solving  a  problem  by  fragments 

X.     Talking  the  Time  Away 176 

a.  Two  types  of  teachers  of  reading 
XI.     Dramatization     .  178 

a.  Caution  about  overemphasis 

b.  Ability    in    one    direction    means    a 

sacrifice  in  another 
XH.     Nature  of  Criticism 178 

a.  The  purpose  is  to  inspire  and  to  improve 

b.  Criticism  easily  degenerates  into  ridicule 

c.  Timidity    and    caution    results    from 

bad  criticism 

Wrong  Kinds  of  Criticism         .        .        .        .180 
a.  The  evil  of   reducing    an    answer    to 
absurdity 


xxiv  CONTENTS 

PACK 

b.  Exhibiting  error  not  a  good  form   of 

criticism 

c.  Critici/«e  vital  things 

x.  Illustration  from  reading 

d.  Chronic  scolding  not  criticism 

XIV.     The  Evil  of  Entertaining 182 

a.  Drudgery  the  result  of  poor  teaching 

b.  The  secret  of  liking  a  study 

c.  Some   books   have  been  entertaining 

rather  than  instructive 

XV.     Effect  of  Praise 183 

a.  Desire  for  approval  is  fundamental 
XVI.     Other  Incentives 184 

a.  Material  rewards  growing  in  disfavor 

b.  The  grade  as  a  stimulus 

x.  Low  grading  and  high  grading 
XVII.     Mannerisms       .  ....     186 

a.  Repetition  of  the  answer 

b.  Typical  phrases 

c.  Nodding  the  head 

d.  Looking  at  the  watch 

e.  Yelling  habit 

CHAPTER  XI 
EXCEPTIONS  TO  THE  RULE 189-202 

I.     The  Unpromising  Child 189 

a.  The  difficulty  of  predicting  the  future 

of  a  child 

b.  The  school  must  attempt  to  reach  all 

II.    The  Discouraged  Pupil 190 

a.  Effect  of  discouragement  on  attendance 

in.    The  Timid  Pupil 192 

a.  Evidences  of  timidity 


CONTENTS  xxv 

MM 
b.  Treatment  of  the  timid  pupil 

IV.     The  Slow  Pupil 193 

a.  Methods  of  educating  the  slow  pupil 

x.  Overcoming     difficulties     with 
greater  skill 

b.  Some  pupils  only  temporarily  slow 

V.     The  Pupa  of  Quick  Temper     .        .       .        .195 

a.  The  cause  and  the  treatment 
VI.     Pupils  with  Nervous  Affliction.       .       .       .     196 

a.  Manifestation  in  disorder 

b.  Suggested  treatment 

VH.     The  Child  of  the  Poor 197 

a.  Should  be  spared  humiliation 
Vm.     The  Untidy  Pupil 197 

a.  Difficulties  of  the  problem 

b.  Suggested  remedy 

IX.     The  Incorrigible  Pupil 198 

a.  Expelling  the  pupil 
X.     Lacking  in  Capacity 199 

a.  The  best  course  for  the  child 
XI.     The  Dreamer 200 

a.  Symptoms  of  the  dreamer 

b.  Breaking  the  habit 

XII.     The  Left-Handed  Pupil 200 

a.  Tendencies  of  left-handed  pupils 

CHAPTER  XII 
THE  TEACHER 203-220 

I.     The  Teacher's  Work  Difficult .       .       .       .203 

a.  The  mind  is    the    most    complicated 

of  all  things 

b.  Pupils  are  from  all  classes  and  types 


xrvi  CONTENTS 


x.  Influence  of  heredity 
y.  Influence  of  the  home 
c.  Three    departments    of     government 

centered  in  teacher 
n.     The  Teacher  the  Chief  Element      .       .       .     204 

a.  The     benefits     gained     from     study 

dependent  upon  teacher 

b.  The  school  reflects  the  teacher 

III.  Balance  Needed  in  the  Teacher      .       .       .205 

a.  Need  of  freedom  from  eccentricities 

b.  Need  of  freedom  and  breadth  of  view 

c.  Should   be    able    to    appreciate    the 

views  of  others 

IV.  Neither  Too  Much  Work  nor  Too  Much  Play .     205 

a.  Two  elements  in  all  communities 

b.  Must  not  attempt  to  lead  everything 

V.     Balance  as  to  Dress 206 

a.  Possible  to  overdress  and  underdress 
VI.     Sanity  in  Religion 206 

a.  The  religious  extremist  the  worst  of  all 

b.  The  teacher  must  teach  children  of  all 

sects 

C.  School  time    cannot    be    devoted    to 
making  converts 

d.  Formal  teaching  of  religion  unnecessary 

VII.     The  Teacher  a  Student  of  Himself.       .       .     207 

a.  Finding  and  correcting  one's  weaknesses 

b.  Reading    professional    literature    and 

associating  with  other  teachers 
VIH.     Adaptability  of  the  Teacher     .       .        .        .208 

a.  Teacher   must   adapt  himself   to    the 

conditions 

b.  Progress    not    made    by    faultfinding 

and  coercion 


CONTENTS  xxvii 


c.  Let  the  school  pay  its  expenses 

IX.     Being  Too  Sensitive  .  ...     210 

a.  Criticism  arises  from  different  reasons 

b.  Classes  of  school  cranks 

X.     Freedom  from  Cross  Grain      .        .        .        .210 

a.  The  pessimist  blocks  his  own  way 

b.  How  pessimism  is  manifested 

XI.     Physical  Efficiency 211 

a.  Good  physical  trim  is  the  first  requisite 

b.  The  greatest  energies  may  be  dissipated 

x.  Dancing 
y.  Revivals 

z.  Correcting  too  many  papers 
XII.     Scholarship  of  the  Teacher       ....     213 

a.  Knowledge  is  his  stock  in  trade 

x.  Can't  know  all  but  must  know 
certain  things 

b.  Scholarship     needs     accuracy     rather 

than  extensiveness 

C.  One  may  be  highly  educated  and  be  a 
failure 

d.  Evils  of  inaccuracy  in  scholarship 

e.  Effect  of  good  scholarship   upon   the 

pupils 

f.  Keeping  fit 

XIH.     Personal  Habits 215 

a.  Teacher  is  a  model 

b.  Pupils  often  lack  model  in  the  home 

c.  Good  habits  demanded 

d.  The  committee 

e.  The  minister 

XIV.     Spirit  and  Attitude 217 

a.  The  teacher's  spirit  gives  color  to  his 
work 


xxviii  CONTENTS 


x.  Brooding  is  dangerous 
y.  Teaching  has  its  charms 
z.  No  calling  is  free  from  annoyances 
b.  The  teacher's  record  is  his  mainstay 

x.  Giving  poor  service  the  last  year 
XV.    Congeniality 218 

a.  Personal  qualities  count  for  much  in 

every  calling 

x.  Illustrated  by   two    types    of 
business  man 

b.  The  voice  of  the  teacher  and  manner 

convey  his  quality 

CHAPTER  XIII 
THE  TEACHER  AND  THE  COMMUNITY       .       .     221-240 

I.     Origin  and  Similarity  of  Problems.        .       .221 

a.  Communities  are  much  alike 

x.  Same  types  of  people 

b.  Some  problems  arise  from  the  teacher 

himself 
C.  The  teacher's  problem  to  understand 

the  conditions 
II.    Avoid  Hasty  Judgment 221 

a.  Disbelieve  a  large  part  of  what  you  hear 

b.  The  friends  and  the  enemies  of  the 

former  teacher 

m.    The  Former  Teacher 222 

a.  Give  little  heed  to  those  who  tell  tales 

about  your  predecessor 

IV.    Influence  in  the  Community    ....     223 
a.  Teacher  must  be  in  favor  to  do  his  best 
work 

x.  Should  let  his  good  qualities  be 
known 


CONTENTS 


V.     The  Treatment  of  the  Teacher  by  the  Com- 
munity          224 

a.  Depends  largely  upon  the  teacher 

x.  Contrast  of  two  types 

b.  Teacher  in  the  rural  community 

VI.     Peddling  Trouble  226 

a.  Every   occupation   has  its  drawbacks 

and  should  keep  its  troubles  to  itself 

b.  Bringing    matters    before    the    school 

board  unnecessarily 

VII.     Long  Investigations 227 

a.  Long  investigations   inexpedient    and 
often  harmful 

x.  Illustration 
m.     Avoid  Factional  Strife 228 

a.  Origin  of  factional  strife  in  petty  dis- 

agreements 

b.  Be  the  teacher  of  all  the  people 

IX.     Begin  Where  the  Community  Is      ...     229 

a.  Passing  from  one  community  to  another 

b.  Endeavor  to  lead,  not  to  drive 

X.     Attitude  toward  the  School      .       .       .       .229 
a.  Taking  undue  privileges 
x.  The  school  hours 
y.  Private  work  and  the  school 

XI.     The  Teacher's  Conduct 230 

a.  Teacher  is  diff erent  from  others 

b.  Questionable  company 

XII.     Discretion  of  the  Teacher        .       .       .  233 

a.  The  teacher's  statements  should  be  free 

from  fault 

x.  No  defects  of  children  to  be  dis- 
cussed 

b.  Illustration  of  the  feeble-minded  girl 


xxx  CONTENTS 


c.  Child  of  the  broken  home 

XIII.  The  False  Tongue 235 

a.  It  lashes  all  in  public  life 

x.  President  of  the  state  university 

b.  Many  types  of  people 

x.  Some  want  injustice 

c.  The  school  stands  for  equality 

d.  Never  run  after  false  reports 

XIV.  The  Teacher's  Boarding  Place        .        .       ,     238 

a.  The  character  of  accommodations 

b.  Never  repeat  family  gossip 

CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  PARENT'S  RESPONSIBILITY  ....     241-259 

I.     Parent  Responsible  for  the  Child's  Physical 

Nature 241 

a.  The  effects  of  inheritance 

b.  Effects  of   physical   conditions   under 

which  child  lives 

x.  Cleanliness  and  purity  essential 
to  vigor 

1.  Exhibit  of  Illinois  State 
Board  of  Health 

II.     Parent  Responsible  for  the  Child's  Moral 

Nature  .       .  .     242 

a.  Effect  of  inheritance  and  training 

x.  Rebellion  in  three  generations 

III.     Responsibility  for  Control        ....     243 
a.  Both   parents    should   agree   in    their 
methods  of  control 

x.  Teacher's   problem  arises  from 
lack  of  control  in  the  home 


CONTENTS  xxxi 

FACE 

IV.     The  Parent's  Example 244 

a.  Example  is  stronger  than  advice 

x.  The  child  imitates  his  parent 

in  the  home 
y.  Illustration  of  the  two  boys 

b.  The  father  taking  pride  in  dissipation 

V.     Effect  of  Parent's  Attitude       .        .        .        .247 

a.  The    child    adopts    his    parent's  at- 

titude toward  truth 

b.  The  effect  of  incidental  impressions 

VI.     Responsibility  for  Attendance  at  School        .     248 

a.  Attendance  is  largely  a  habit 

x.  Effect  of  recurring  absence 

VII.     Entering  Children  Too  Young         .         .        .     249 

a.  Ignorance  is  one  cause 

b.  Desire  of  parents  to  free  themselves 

from   care  of  the  child 

VIH.     Knowledge  of  the  Child 250 

a.  Parents  seldom  know  their  own  children 

b.  Parent  should  know  the  habits  of  the 

child,  his  industry,  his  trustworthiness 

x.  Sending  away  does  not  change 

the  characteristics  of  the  child 

IX.     The  Child  Outside  of  School  Hours        .        .     251 

a.  Attitude  toward  regulations  determined 

by  associations  and  practices  out  of 
school 

b.  Outside  activities  must  be  controlled 

by  parent 

X.     Attempting  Good  Things  in  Poor  Ways.        .     252 

a.  The  evil  of  bribing 

b.  Placing  temptation  in  the  child's  way 


xxxn  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

XI.    The  Wild-Oats  Doctrine  .       .       ...       .     254 

a.  The  danger  of  evil  practices 

b.  The  wrong  attitude  of  the  public 

XII.     Appreciation  of  Education        ....     255 
a.  The  importance  of  remaining  in  school 

XIII.     The  Parent's  First  Interest      .       .       .       .257 

a.  Should  be  greater  than  outside  interests 

b.  The  danger  of  neglecting  the  child 

CHAPTER  XV 
UPPER-GRADE  READING 260-274 

I.     Divisions  of  Reading.       .       .  .^.v .       .       .     260 

a.  Grades  one  to  four 

b.  Grades  five  to  eight 

II.     Purposes  of  Reading 261 

a.  Expression  of  feeling  as  important  as 

expression  of  thought 

b.  Pronunciation  and  diction 

c.  Training  the  speaking  voice 

m.     False  Notions  about  Reading  ....     262 

a.  Oral  reading  as  necessary  as  silent  read- 

hig  in  upper  grades 

b.  Importance    of   reading   selections  of 

literary  value 
C.  Expression  in  reading 

x.  Does,  not  follow  thought 
IV.    Why  Expression  Does  Not  Follow  Thought 

and  Feeling 264 

a.  Self-expression  and  the  interpretation 

of  another's  thought 

b.  Literary  forms  of  expression  different 

from  colloquial 


CONTENTS  xxxiii 


c.  Power    of    expression    comes   through 
practice 

V.     How  to  Get  Expression 267 

a.  Begin  with  simple  selections 

b.  Do  not  attempt  too  much 

c.  Formal  training  necessary 

x.  Pitch 
y.  Rate 

VI.     How  to  Get  Thought 269 

a.  Selections    that    require    no    outside 

knowledge 

b.  Selections  that  require  outside  know- 

ledge 

x.  Historical  setting 
y.  Geographical  setting 
z.  Scientific  facts   underlying  the 
selection 

VH.     The  Reading  Recitation 271 

a.  Aim  and  preparation  necessary 

b.  Much  practice  in  oral  reading 

c.  Teacher's  criticism  should  be  vital 

d.  Assignments  should  be  definite 

VIH.     Some  General  Suggestions      ....     273 

a.  Let  the  taste  for  reading  take  care  of 

itself 

b.  Do  not  let  pupils  commit  a  piece   to 

memory  until  they  can  read  it  well 

INDEX  275 


CHAPTER  I 
A  PROSPECTIVE  VIEW 

The  Teacher's  Work  Fundamental.  The  month  of 
September  each  year  witnesses  the  opening  of  the 
public  schools.  Every  school  from  the  most  obscure 
one-room  school  to  the  most  famous  university  with 
its  two  score  of  buildings  and  hundreds  of  teachers  to 
accommodate  its  needs  is  open  to  carry  on  the  great 
process  of  education.  These  doors  are  open  in  our 
country  to  all  on  equal  terms;  to  the  rich  and  the  poor, 
to  the  white  and  the  black  they  offer  equal  opportunity 
to  pursue  a  course  of  preparation  for  any  calling. 
This  preparation  we  recognize  as  indispensable  to 
self-support  and  good  citizenship. 

If,  by  some  magic  power,  we  should  take  away  for 
one  day  the  impressions  which  have  been  made  by  the 
schools  upon  the  minds  of  all  the  men,  women,  and 
children  of  the  country,  a  universal  paralysis  would 
infect  every  business  and  calling  in  life.  We  should 
scarcely  be  able  to  perform  a  single  business  transaction 
or  professional  act.  No  bank,  store,  or  office  could 
transact  its  routine  of  business;  the  click  of  the  tele- 
graphic instruments  in  the  thousands  of  offices  through- 
out the  country  would  cease  to  convey  human  thought; 
no  newspaper  could  be  published  or  read;  religious  and 
secular  rites  and  ceremonies  would  be  impossible  for 


2   PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

the  day;  not  a  dose  of  medicine  could  be  given  in 
safety  to  the  sick;  no  operation  could  be  performed  by 
a  surgeon  to  relieve  a  sufferer;  indeed,  it  is  difficult  to 
discover  what  business  activity  would  be  possible 
under  these  conditions.  The  teacher's  work,  then, 
measured  in  terms  of  service  is  unsurpassed  by  that 
performed  by  any  other  social  group.  It  is  essential 
to  the  efficiency  of  all  groups. 

Seeking  the  Magical.  The  school  performs  a 
useful  and  a  fundamental  work,  but  it  cannot  do 
magical  things.  It  is  not,  perhaps,  possible  for  it  to 
reach  every  desirable  need.  Whatever  it  accom- 
plishes must  be  done  in  the  same  manner  that  all  other 
work  of  the  world  is  done:  by  persistent  labor.  There 
is  nothing  in  school  which  can  be  accomplished  by 
magical  methods.  School  authorities  often  seek 
teachers  of  imaginary  powers  to  teach  in  their  schools, 
when  the  kind  of  teacher  most  needed  is  one  who  is 
industrious  and  skilled  in  the  application  of  well-known 
principles  of  teaching.  Such  authorities  do  not  seek 
teachers;  they  hunt  for  magicians,  snake  charmers,  and 
Pied  Pipers.  This  attitude  makes  it  easy  for  the  char- 
latan and  the  demagog  to  prevail  over  teachers  of 
worth.  The  quack  exists  in  education  just  as  he  does 
in  the  practice  of  medicine.  This  attitude  leads  to  the 
selection  of  the  teachers  on  "appearances."  Many 
school  boards  use  the  same  basis  of  selection  of  the 
teacher  that  they  would  in  choosing  a  horse — they 
seek  "a  good  looker."  Superintendents  are  sometimes 
guilty  of  such  superficiality.  Why  a  superintendent 


A  PROSPECTIVE  VIEW  3 

refuses  to  recommend  a  teacher  who  is  superior  in 
instruction,  but  not  physically  beautiful,  is  difficult  to 
determine.  Children  often  think  their  teachers  are 
beautiful  because  they  possess  genuine  qualities,  when 
others  think  they  are  homely. 

Diversity  among  Children.  It  is  impossible  for 
the  teacher  to  accomplish  extraordinary  things  in 
school  because  of  the  diversity  among  his  pupils.  The 
various  inequalities  found  in  the  school  are  largely 
beyond  the  teacher's  control.  The  teacher  must  work 
with  all  classes  and  conditions.  The  habits  of  life, 
inheritance,  and  home  opportunities  may  place  serious 
obstacles  in  the  way  of  the  teacher.  Some  children 
are  the  offspring  of  alcoholics,  diseased,  and  licentious 
persons,  and  those  who  spend  their  energies  in  riotous 
living.  Others  get  little  more  than  scanty  food  and 
clothing;  there  is  no  intellectual  equipment  upon  which 
to  build.  The  child  who  begins  school  at  the  age  of 
six  must  have  a  mental  equipment  just  as  definite  in 
its  character  as  the  pupil  who  passes  from  the  elemen- 
tary school  to  the  high  school,  or  from  the  high  school 
to  college.  If  the  child's  preparation  by  the  "school  of 
infancy"  is  inadequate,  his  progress  in  school  will  be 
difficult.  A  large  majority  of  pupils,  however,  are  to 
be  considered  normal;  these  should  make  regular 
progress  from  year  to  year. 

Reaching  the  Individual.  The  problem  of  the 
school  is  to  reach  every  individual  if  possible.  Apti- 
tudes and  capacities  among  pupils  differ  widely,  but 
these  facts  must  not  prevent  the  teacher  from  making 


4   PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

every  reasonable  effort  to  stimulate  growth  in  every 
pupil.  No  teacher  can  discharge  his  duty  toward 
certain  pupils  by  pointing  to  the  fact  that  they  are 
too  stupid  to  learn,  that  the  home  conditions  are  bad, 
that  the  preceding  teacher  was  thus  and  so,  that  the 
pupil  is  subnormal,  and  like  excuses.  Some  teachers 
assume  that  these  pupils  are  incapable  of  doing  the 
work  of  the  grade  and  must  fail,  and  if  they  are  com- 
pelled to  take  a  year's  work  over,  there  will  be  no 
further  difficulty;  but  experience  shows  that  failure 
is  not  the  remedy  for  such  cases:  the  remedy  is  greater 
stress  on  the  fundamental  principles  of  instruction,  and 
more  individual  work  for  these  unusual  cases.  A  visit 
to  a  well-conducted  school  for  subnormals  will  con- 
vince the  teacher  that  a  large  part  of  the  pupils  given 
up  as  hopeless  may  be  instructed  by  methods  similar 
to  those  employed  for  normal  children;  the  only 
difference  lies  in  the  intensity  of  application.  Many 
of  these  pupils  are  led  to  accomplish  work  which 
approaches  very  closely  the  work  done  by  normal 
pupils.  These  special  schools  are  needed  in  large 
systems  where  the  aggregate  of  cases  is  large,  but  in 
small  systems  the  regular  school  must  meet  the  needs. 
The  number  of  cases  is  usually  very  small;  it  should  not 
amount  to  more  than  one  or  two  pupils  to  the  room. 
In  recent  years  there  have  been  many  attempts  to 
reach  unusual  conditions  met  by  the  teacher.  We 
recognize  that  it  is  un-American  as  well  as  unprofitable 
to  neglect  any  group  of  children.  We  have  estab- 
lished for  this  reason  schools  for  the  blind,  the  deaf, 


A  PROSPECTIVE  VIEW  5 

the  feeble-minded,  the  tubercular,  the  crippled,  and 
other  classes.  Recent  changes  in  the  attitude  of 
teachers  and  a  better  understanding  of  scientific 
teaching  have  saved  scores  of  children  who  formerly 
were  ignored  and  permitted  to  grow  to  maturity  in 
ignorance.  To  reach  these  cases  in  a  small  way  in  the 
local  school  is  a  high  social  service. 

Teachers  should  be  skillful  enough  in  their  instruc- 
tion to  enable  normal  pupils,  at  least,  to  accomplish 
the  work  of  the  school  without  personal  instruction 
being  done  by  the  parent  in  the  home.  This  seems  a 
low  standard,  but  it  is  one  which  is  not  being  met  by 
some  teachers.  Many  children  who  now  stay  in  school 
would  fail  and  leave  school  if  they  were  not  assisted 
almost  daily  in  their  work  by  their  parents.  After  the 
parent  has  spent  a  hard  day  at  his  own  work,  it  is 
unfair  to  ask  him  to  give  his  evenings  to  patching  up 
the  mistakes  of  a  bungling  teacher,  in  order  to  enable 
his  child  to  accomplish  the  work  of  the  grade.  The 
parent  is  rarely  fitted  to  do  the  work  properly,  for  even 
if  he  has  sufficient  education,  he  has  not  kept  up  with 
the  changes  in  school  methods.  Parents  have  about 
all  they  can  do  to  provide  for  their  children,  to  pay 
taxes  to  support  the  schools,  without,  at  the  same  time, 
performing  the  work  of  the  teacher. 

Phenomenal  Results.  The  teacher  who  does  his 
duty  by  all  classes  of  pupils  in  his  school  is  not  likely 
to  produce  phenomenal  results.  At  least  his  results  in 
any  subject  are  not  likely  to  surpass  those  attained 
by  efficient  teachers  in  other  schools.  Superior  results 


6   PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

in  schools  are  often  merely  a  matter  of  emphasis. 
When  the  work  of  a  teacher  becomes  very  conspicuous 
for  its  excellency  in  a  certain  subject,  there  is  usually 
found  some  subject  or  subjects  on  the  teacher's  pro- 
gram which  are  greatly  neglected.  Almost  any 
teacher  may  produce  superior  results  in  any  subject 
by  overemphasis.  A  teacher  who  gives  four  periods  a 
day  to  primary  reading  should  accomplish  more  than 
a  teacher  who  gives  only  two  periods  to  reading.  A 
teacher  who  gives  five  periods  a  week  to  a  subject 
should  of  course  attain  a  better  standard  than  the 
teacher  who  gives  only  two  or  three  periods  a  week  to 
the  subject.  A  teacher  who  confines  his  time  to  the 
strongest  pupils  and  neglects  the  weaker  pupils  will 
of  necessity  cover  more  work  and  at  the  same  time 
do  a  better  quality  of  work  than  the  teacher  who 
attempts  to  enable  all  of  his  pupils  to  attain  a  fair 
standard.  The  teacher  should  not  strive  to  break 
standards  in  a  few  subjects  with  a  few  pupils,  but 
should  attempt  to  extend  the  benefits  to  all  the  pupils 
of  his  school  in  as  many  subjects  as  possible.  Teachers 
are  inclined  very  strongly  toward  overemphasis  of  a 
few  special  things  at  the  expense  of  others  in  the 
curriculum.  The  place  of  emphasis  is  usually  deter- 
mined by  the  personal  likes  of  the  teacher. 

A  group  of  teachers  visited  a  ward  school  in  a  city 
of  several  thousand  inhabitants.  The  first  room  they 
entered  was  engaged  in  a  reading  lesson.  The  teacher 
in  charge  said,  "I  am  glad  to  see  you;  I  shall  change 
my  program  just  a  little  because  I  want  you  to  see  our 


A  PROSPECTIVE  VIEW  7 

work  in  'Hiawatha.' '  The  work  was  presented  for 
their  benefit;  it  was  most  excellent;  the  teachers  felt 
chagrined  that  their  work  of  a  similar  character  was 
so  inferior  to  what  they  had  seen.  They  thanked  the 
teacher  for  the  fine  exhibition,  and  entered  another 
room  across  the  hall.  Upon  entering,  the  teacher 
remarked,  "We  are  doing  such  beautiful  work  in 
'Hiawatha,'  and  I  must  give  you  a  chance  to  see  it." 
The  teachers  did  not  object  to  a  second  production  of 
such  an  excellent  performance,  and  gladly  welcomed  it. 
The  quality  was  most  excellent  and  compared  favor- 
ably with  what  they  had  seen  in  the  previous  room. 
They  passed  on  to  another  room,  but  were  surprised 
to  be  confronted  with  a  third  exhibition  on  "Hiawatha." 
During  the  morning  they  witnessed  five  performances  of 
"Hiawatha." 

The  other  work  which  they  saw  was  below  the 
standard  of  fair  results.  In  music  they  found  the 
pupils  in  the  fifth  grade  doing  third-grade  work, 
writing  and  spelling  were  given  each  two  periods  a 
week  on  the  program.  It  thus  becomes  evident  that 
it  is  impossible  to  pass  a  correct  judgment  on  the  work 
of  a  teacher  until  all  the  facts  are  known.  Many  of 

I  our  so-called  "experts"  would  lose  their  "superior 
qualities"  if  they  were  required  to  meet  the  con- 
ditions in  all  subjects  and  with  all  pupils  which  the 
rank  and  file  of  teachers  must  meet 

The  Early  Years.  Experience  shows  that  many 
pupils  remain  in  school  only  a  few  years.  For  this 
reason  the  teacher  must  begin  early  to  give  his  pupils 


8   PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

a  knowledge  of  fundamentals.  There  are  some  things 
in  the  school  which  have  no  substitute  and  which  are 
of  prime  importance.  It  is  a  misfortune  for  a  pupil  to 
be  in  school  two  or  three  years  before  he  attempts  to 
do  work  along  these  fundamental  lines.  A  boy  whose 
father  is  a  day  laborer  enters  the  school  at  six  and  a 
half  years  of  age.  The  teacher  begins  by  teaching 
him  rimes  and  jingles,  to  sing  songs,  to  dance  folk 
dances,  to  recite  gems,  lay  sticks,  and  cut  magical 
creatures  from  paper.  All  of  these  things  are  modern 
and  they  are  good,  but  the  evil  arises  by  permitting 
them  to  crowd  out  everything  else  which  has  been 
found  indispensable  in  an  education.  If  these  things 
deprive  a  boy  of  the  ability  to  read,  they  have  not 
yielded  a  return  which  is  an  adequate  substitute. 
Every  child  must  learn  to  read;  there  is  no  work  a 
teacher  can  do  in  the  first  year  which  is  more  impor- 
tant, and  no  work  should  be  permitted  to  displace  it. 
Many  teachers  are  able  to  teach  these  fundamental 
things  and  do  the  other  work  in  addition,  but  it  is 
impossible  under  some  conditions  for  other  teachers  to 
do  it;  these  invariably  should  eliminate  the  work  of 
lesser  importance.  A  boy  who  has  spent  one  year  in 
school  without  acquiring  the  ability  to  recognize  one 
word,  and  who  has  not  acquired  the  ability  to  write 
his  name,  has  lost  almost  a  year  of  school,  regardless 
of  how  many  dances,  how  many  songs,  or  how  many 
rimes  he  may  have  learned.  The  loss  becomes  evident 
when  he  is  placed  the  next  year  among  pupils  who 
have  been  taught  to  read  from  the  first  day  of  school. 


A  PROSPECTIVE  VIEW  9 

They  are  able  to  read  from  an  average  second  reader, 
gather  thought  from  a  printed  page,  and  become  more 
independent  each  day,  while  he  is  as  dumb  and  helpless 
as  if  the  book  were  printed  in  a  foreign  language.  If 
we  should  follow  this  pupil  through  the  subsequent 
years,  and  watch  his  progress  as  compared  with  the 
other  pupils,  we  should  find  him  a  year  behind  those 
who  started  earlier  in  their  reading.  In  the  fifth  or 
sixth  grade  or  later,  perhaps,  he  begins  to  feel  the 
pressure  to  quit  school.  The  teacher  longs  for  just 
one  more  year;  she  knows  how  much  he  would  gain  if 
the  family  could  sacrifice  in  some  manner  to  give  him 
just  one  more  year  in  school.  He  could  round  out 
the  elements  of  an  education.  We  just  now  begin  to 
understand  and  to  measure  the  loss  of  the  first  year. 
The  dances,  the  songs,  and  the  other  things  have  been 
forgotten,  and  they  are  useless  as  a  means  of  helping 
the  pupil  in  the  very  thing  he  will  need  most  after 
leaving  school. 

No  attempt  is  made  here  to  discredit  the  exercises 
in  the  schools  which  add  cheer  to  the  school,  which 
store  the  mind  with  fine  sentiments  and  principles;  the 
dancing  and  the  singing  are  not  to  be  abandoned. 
The  question  is  merely  one  of  moderation  and  a  recog- 
nition of  certain  work  of  the  school,  which  conditions 
the  progress  in  later  years. 

Kinds  of  Criticism.  There  are  different  kinds  of 
criticism  which  the  teacher  meets  in  his  work;  some  of 
the  most  unjust  comes  from  members  of  his  own 
profession,  Teachers  as  a  class  need  to  cultivate  a 


10    PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

higher  appreciation  of  the  good  qualities  of  their 
associates  and  contemporaries.  President-emeritus 
Eliot  of  Harvard  has  said  that  it  requires  a  much 
higher  type  of  intelligence  to  discern  the  good  in 
others  than  to  criticise  the  evils  involved  in  their  work. 
A  large  majority  of  teachers  consider  the  opposite  to 
be  true.  When  a  school  is  visited  by  outside  teachers, 
they  are  likely  to  seek  evidences  of  inferior  work  and 
to  permit  this  attitude  to  blind  them  to  everything 
praiseworthy.  If  they  see  work  superior  to  that  done 
in  their  own  schools,  they  criticise  it  on  the  basis  of 
being  "too  good."  If  the  result  is  accomplished  by  a 
different  method,  many  teachers  seem  unable  to 
recognize  any  good  whatsoever.  Criticism  often  arises 
from  different  standards  of  measurement  as  to  what 
constitutes  excellent  work,  but  a  large  part  of  the 
criticism  one  hears,  when  reduced  to  its  lowest  terms, 
is  a  question  of  one  teacher  wishing  to  appear  superior 
to  others,  or  somewhat  better  than  his  work  would 
justify.  It  is  easy  to  find  fault  and  to  criticise  any 
school  on  some  pretext;  no  school  is  perfect  in  all 
things;  the  schools  are  attempting  too  many  lines  of 
work  to  approach  perfection  in  many  of  them.  If  they 
were  to  attempt  to  reduce  their  lines  of  work,  they 
could  be  sharply  criticised  because  of  "narrowness  and 
one-sidedness."  The  teacher  who  meets  some  of  this 
criticism  in  his  work  should  take  it  philosophically  and 
with  as  little  disturbance  as  possible. 

Results  the  Test  of  Theories.    The  only  true  test 
of  our  plans  is  the  reaction  of  the  pupils  we  instruct 


A  PROSPECTIVE  VIEW  1 1 

when  these  theories  are  applied.  Theorists  get  along 
beautifully  if  they  confine  the  elaboration  of  their 
schemes  to  teachers,  but  when  they  proceed  to  illus- 
trate all  the  supposed  possibilities  with  children,  their 
calculations  shrink  very  perceptibly.  The  best  place 
to  discover  educational  methods  which  stand  the  test 
of  the  school  is  in  the  school.  Any  plan  worked  out  in 
an  office  and  not  based  upon  the  application  in  the 
school  will  be  defective  in  many  particulars.  We  are 
so  anxious  to  reach  results  in  educational  method  that 
we  often  start  with  conclusions  and  then  endeavor  to 
force  pupils  to  prove  them.  So  many  things  have 
been  announced  as  "definitely  proved"  in  recent  years 
that  we  need  to  exercise  caution  about  new  proclama- 
tions until  they  have  been  tested  out  in  schools  other 
than  those  presided  over  by  those  proclaiming  the 
"discovery."  Conclusions  are  dependent  upon  so 
many  conditions  that,  unless  one  knows  and  is  able  to 
place  a  correct  value  on  all  of  the  elements  involved,  it 
is  impossible  to  determine  the  extent  of  their  reliability. 
The  particular  medicine  one  uses  is  not  so  important 
in  the  last  analysis;  the  chief  thing  is  the  cure  for 
human  ignorance. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Show  how  the  efficiency  of  a  nation  is  related  to  the  edu- 
cation of  its  people.     Make  a  list  of  common  occupations  which 
are  closed  to  persons  without  at  least  the  rudiments  of  an  edu- 
cation. 

2.  How  do  you  account  for  such  great  diversity  among 
pupils? 


12    PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

3.  What  influences  in  the  home  and  community  life  of 
pupils  are  especially  antagonistic  to  the  work  of  the  teacher? 
Mention  influences  over  which  the  teacher  has  little  or  no  con- 
trol.    Mention  some  conditions  vitally  affecting  the  work  of  the 
teacher  which  he  might  improve. 

4.  Name  a  few  groups  of  pupils  especially  difficult  to  in- 
struct, and  explain  how  the  modern  school  attempts  to  educate 
them. 

5.  Find  out  the  total  and  the  per  capita  cost  of  maintaining 
the  dependent  classes  of  your  community  and  state.     Compare 
the  cost  of  this  maintenance  with  the  cost  of  maintaining  some 
college  or  university  of  your  state. 

6.  How  would  you  give  individual  aid  to  a  backward  pupil 
in  your  school? 

7.  A  pupil  is  sometimes  backward,  but  later  becomes  strong 
in  his  work;  sometimes  the  opposite  is  true.     State  common 
causes  of  these  changes  in  the  progress  of  a  pupil,  illustrating 
your  answer  with  specific  examples. 

8.  Have  you  noticed  that  some  pupils  have  great  difficulty 
in  learning  some  kinds  of  work,  but  find  others  unusually  easy? 
What  should   be   the   attitude  of   the   teacher   toward   such 
pupils? 

9.  How  may  the  teacher  eliminate  the  necessity  for  home 
study  on  the  part  of  pupils  in  the  elementary  school?     What  are 
the  chief  objections  to  home  study? 

10.  What  evils  are  likely  to  follow  in  a  school  where  the 
teacher  seeks  to  outrank  others  in  some  line  of  endeavor? 

11.  Do  you  regard  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic  of  greater 
or  lesser  importance  than  they  were  fifty  years  ago?     Are  they 
likely  to  become  more  or  less  important?     Give  as  many  illus- 
trations as  possible  to  support  your  answer. 

12.  How  much  reading  should  be  done  by  a  pupil  of  normal 
intelligence  during  his  first  year  in  school?     How  much  should 
he  accomplish  in  numbers,  writing,  language,  and  music? 

13.  What  particular  advantage  is  it  to  a  pupil  to  be  taught 
to  read  as  early  as  possible? 


A  PROSPECTIVE  VIEW  13 

14.  If  a  pupil  could  remain  in  school  only  six  years,  give  the 
lines  of  work  which,  in  your  judgment,  would  be  best  for  him 
to  study.     What  difference  would  you  make  in  his  work  if  he 
could  be  in  school  eight  years?     Twelve  years?     Sixteen  years? 

15.  What  portion  of  the  pupils  in  your  community  finish  the 
elementary  school?     The  high  school?     College? 

16.  Why  is  it  so  important  that  as  rapid  progress  as  possible 
be  made  in  the  first  years  of  the  school  life  of  the  pupil? 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  FIRST  DAY  OF  SCHOOL 

Importance  of  a  Good  Beginning.  A  good  start 
wins  many  victories  which  might  otherwise  be  forever 
lost.  There  is  no  other  enterprise  in  which  a  good 
beginning  is  more  essential  than  it  is  in  beginning  the 
work  of  a  school  year.  The  impression  the  teacher 
makes  the  first  day  determines  in  a  large  measure  the 
attitude  his  pupils  and  the  community  will  assume 
toward  him  in  his  conduct  of  the  school.  If  it  is 
apparent  from  the  beginning  that  he  is  master  of  the 
situation  in  every  detail,  he  will  be  looked  to  as  the 
leader  without  further  question,  but  if  he  is  uncertain 
of  his  course,  many  will  soon  arise  who  will  question  his 
leadership. 

Preparation  for  the  First  Day.  No  work  of  impor- 
tance can  be  done  without  ample  preparation.  It  is 
impossible  for  the  teacher  to  start  the  work  of  a  school 
year  without  the  most  careful  preparation.  No 
teacher,  even  with  many  years  of  experience,  can  take 
charge  of  a  new  school  and  organize  it  properly  for 
work  the  first  day  unless  he  has  made  careful  prepara- 
tion for  the  opening  day,  long  before  that  day  arrives. 
His  preparatory  work  should  be  so  well  done  before 
the  first  day  that  the  first  day  will  move  along  with 
the  precision  of  a  school  in  operation  several  weeks, 

14 


THE  FIRST  DAY  OF  SCHOOL  15 

Sources  of  Information.  If  the  teacher  launches 
his  school  properly  on  the  first  day,  it  is  evident  that 
he  must  be  in  possession  of  a  large  number  of  facts 
relating  to  the  school  before  he  begins  his  work.  If 
the  teacher  is  a  stranger  to  the  school,  he  must  begin 
early  enough  to  provide  for  all  possible  difficulties 
which  may  arise.  If  he  is  engaged  to  teach  an  un- 
graded school,  or  if  he  is  employed  to  assume  the 
management  of  a  system  of  schools,  much  more  time 
will  be  required  to  perfect  his  plans  for  the  first  day. 
He  must  consult  the  various  sources  of  information 
available  to  supply  him  with  all  the  necessary  facts 
concerning  the  school.  He  should  get  possession  of 
the  records  of  the  school,  and  study  them  carefully  \o 
familiarize  himself  regarding  the  number  of  classes, 
ages  of  pupils,  and  other  details  which  are  indispensable 
to  the  opening.  If  the  records  have  been  kept  properly, 
and  if  the  details  of  classification  have  been  recorded, 
he  will  need  very  little  more  information  about  the 
school  in  order  to  organize  it  properly.  It  is  unfortu- 
nate, however,  that  the  records  of  many  schools  are 
very  inadequate,  and  they  may  prove  entirely  worth- 
less to  the  subsequent  teacher.  This  may  happen 
either  because  the  former  teacher  was  negligent  in  his 
records,  or  it  may  result  from  the  resignation  of  the 
teacher  who  had  planned  to  return  to  the  school  the 
subsequent  year  and  who  was  thoroughly  familiar 
with  the  details  necessary  for  the  organization.  Every 
teacher,  it  may  be  said,  should  leave  in  his  school  at 
the  close  of  each  year  a  record  which  is  sufficiently 


16  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

complete  to  enable  a  stranger  to  assume  the  duties  of 
the  school  the  next  year. 

If  the  records  of  the  school  are  inadequate,  the 
teacher  should  visit  the  former  teacher,  and  obtain 
from  him  a  full  knowledge  of  the  school.  If  a  personal 
visit  is  impossible,  he  should  seek  the  desired  informa- 
tion by  correspondence.  Some  knowledge  may  be 
gained  by  consulting  the  county  superintendent  or 
other  supervisory  officer,  but  it  is  not  likely  that  the 
knowledge  thus  gained  will  be  sufficiently  specific  to 
aid  the  teacher  greatly  in  organizing  the  school.  The 
teacher  should  not  trust  to  the  pupils  of  the  school  on 
the  opening  day  to  guide  him  in  the  formation  of  his 
plans.  The  information  thus  gained  is  usually  too 
meagre  and  too  uncertain  to  be  of  value,  and,  besides, 
the  teacher  cannot  afford  to  wait  until  the  first  day 
for  this  knowledge  of  the  school.  Any  teacher  who 
begins  early  and  who  persists  in  his  efforts  to  become 
familiar  with  his  school  usually  obtains  concerning  the 
school  all  the  facts  which  he  needs. 

The  Course  of  Study.  Every  school  should  have  a 
definite  course  of  study.  Familiarity  with  this  course 
is  a  prime  necessity  for  the  teacher.  He  must  have 
the  details  of  the  course  in  mind  before  he  attempts 
to  arrange  his  plans  for  the  first  day.  The  course  of 
study  should  be  sought  from  the  former  teacher  or 
from  those  higher  in  authority.  If  the  school  follows  a 
state  or  a  county  course,  a  copy  of  it  is  easily  obtained. 
It  will  be  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  make  a  careful 
study  of  the  course  in  order  to  become  thoroughly 


THE  FIRST  DAY  OF  SCHOOL  17 

familiar  with  its  general  plan  of  organization.  Serious 
mistakes  in  organization  are  inevitable  unless  the 
teacher  knows  the  course  of  study  as  it  is  planned  for 
the  work  of  his  grade  or  grades. 

Classification  of  Pupils.  With  a  study  of  the 
school  records,  and  familiarity  with  the  course  of 
study  the  teacher  should  be  able  to  classify  his  pupils 
for  their  work.  He  should  know  the  classes  which 
are  to  be  taught  and  the  names  of  the  pupils  who 
belong  in  each  class.  He  should  know  at  what  point 
each  class  should  begin  the  work  of  the  year.  A 
careful  record  should  be  made  of  the  classes  so  that 
the  details  are  easily  accessible  for  use  the  first  day  of 
school.  If  the  teacher  is  employed  to  teach  an 
ungraded  school,  he  may  have  many  classes.  Suppose 
he  finds  that  he  must  teach  all  grades  from  the  first 
to  the  eighth.  The  first  grade  will  be,  for  the  most 
part,  beginners.  He  can  estimate  the  number  approxi- 
mately from  the  average  size  of  the  other  classes.  He 
may  then  begin  his  organization  of  the  second  grade. 
The  pupils  who  were  in  the  first  grade  the  previous 
year  and  who  have  been  promoted  will  constitute  the 
second  grade  unless  some  have  been  retained  in  the 
grade  from  the  previous  year.  In  this  case  the  names 
of  these  pupils  should  be  added  to  the  list  of  second 
grade  pupils.  All  of  these  pupils  should,  under 
ordinary  circumstances,  recite  together  in  all  second- 
grade  classes.  If  the  second-grade  work  in  the  course 
of  study  requires  reading,  numbers,  writing,  drawing, 
and  story  work,  these  pupils  should  be  recorded  for 


18  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS.  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

these  classes.  The  work  of  the  third  grade,  and  all 
other  grades  should  be  arranged  in  a  similar  manner. 
When  the  members  of  all  the  grades  and  classes  have 
been  determined,  the  teacher  may  determine  the 
number  of  classes  which  must  be  provided  for  on  his 
program.  There  is  no  reason  why  this  plan  of  organi- 
zation should  not  be  a  safe  one  for  the  teacher  who 
teaches  in  a  graded  school,  where  only  one  or  two 
grades  are  taught.  The  number  of  pupils  will  indicate 
how  many  divisions  of  the  classes  are  advisable,  and 
the  grading  and  former  standing  of  the  pupils  will 
indicate  the  pupils  who  should  be  placed  in  the  same 
class 

Pronunciation  of  Names.  The  teacher  who  goes 
into  a  new  community  should  not  make  himself  con- 
spicuous by  mispronouncing  the  names  of  his  pupils. 
There  are  usually  some  peculiar  names  in  every 
locality,  which  are  new  to  the  teacher.  It  is  very 
distracting  in  the  school  for  the  teacher  to  blunder 
repeatedly  in  calling  the  names  of  the  pupils.  Nothing 
makes  it  more  evident  that  he  is,  indeed,  the  "new 
teacher"  than  blundering  over  names.  There  is  no 
excuse  for  this  uncertainty;  the  teacher  can  know 
definitely  regarding  them  by  asking  the  former  teacher 
if  he  confers  with  him;  if  he  does  not  have  this  oppor- 
tunity, he  may  remove  all  doubts  by  consulting  an 
older  pupil  before  the  opening  of  school.  When  the 
pronunciation  of  the  name  has  been  determined,  the 
teacher  should  mark  it  diacritically  and  exercise  care 
in  using  the  name  until  it  is  familiar  to  him,  One 


THE  FIRST  DAY  OF  SCHOOL  19 

feels  a  certain  sense  of  acquaintance  with  another 
when  he  hears  the  other  call  him  by  his  name,  but  it 
requires  a  long  time  to  feel  acquainted  with  one  who 
blunders  in  his  use  of  your  name.  This  matter  is  so 
important  that  it  deserves  to  be  listed  as  one  of  the 
points  of  preparation  for  the  first  day  of  school. 

The  Program.  After  the  teacher  has  determined 
the  number  of  classes  and  the  subjects  which  must  be 
taught  in  his  school,  he  is  in  possession  of  all  the 
necessary  facts  to  arrange  his  program.  This  is  the 
most  important  part  of  the  work  of  organization. 
The  teacher  must  determine  at  the  outset  what  classes 
are  to  recite  every  day,  what  classes  are  to  recite  less 
often  and  when,  and  what  time  can  be  allowed  each 
class.  In  most  schools  it  is  impossible  to  hear  each 
class  every  day.  Drawing,  music,  writing,  and  hand- 
work may  be  arranged  for  two  or  three  periods  each 
week.  The  teacher  should  have  a  definite  plan, 
however,  for  each  class;  he  should  never  have  classes 
which  are  "worked  in  when  time  permits."  All 
should  have  their  place  on  the  program,  and  they 
should  be  heard  at  their  allotted  time.  Some  of  the 
work  of  the  school  is  so  important  that  it  is  necessary 
to  provide  for  it  every  day;  some  work  should  be  given 
more  than  one  period  each  day.  The  reading  work 
in  the  first  and  second  grades  should  be  given  at  least 
two  periods  a  day.  If  pupils  in  the  third  grade  are 
very  weak  in  reading,  they  should  be  given  two  periods 
each  day;  in  most  instances,  however,  one  period  a 
day  is  sufficient.  In  all  other  grades  one  period  a  day 


20  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

is  sufficient  for  the  regular  work  of  the  elementary 
school. 

Under  the  most  extreme  conditions  the  teacher 
should  reduce  his  classes  so  that  it  will  not  be  neces- 
sary to  give  less  than  ten  minutes  to  any  recitation. 
It  would  be  better  to  give  at  least  fifteen  minutes  to 
each  recitation  in  the  grades,  and  a  longer  time  if 
possible.  Fifteen  to  twenty  minutes  makes  a  good 
period  for  small  classes  from  the  first  to  the  fourth 
grade;  twenty  to  thirty  minutes  provides  a  good 
period  for  pupils  from  the  fifth  through  the  eighth 
grade,  but  with  small  classes  a  teacher  may  do  reason- 
ably good  work  with  less  time. 

In  arranging  the  program  it  is  well,  if  possible,  to 
arrange  the  classes  so  that  formal  studies  come  in  the 
morning,  and  are  alternated  with  content  studies. 
Under  complicated  conditions,  however,  the  teacher 
must  ignore  this  condition  very  largely. 

In  larger  systems  of  schools  it  is  not  feasible  to 
permit  grade  teachers  to  make  out  their  own  programs. 
These  are  made  out  by  the  principal  or  superintendent. 
Special  teachers  who  work  in  different  schools  must  be 
provided  for,  and  special  lines  of  work  are  arranged 
from  year  to  year  to  suit  the  individuality  of  the 
superintendent.  In  all  cases,  whether  the  teacher 
makes  out  his  own  program  or  has  it  made  out  for  him, 
he  should  follow  it  closely.  The  most  economical  way 
to  do  a  large  amount  of  school  work,  and  the  condition 
under  which  it  is  most  likely  to  be  done  at  all,  is  to 
have  a  well-organized  program,  which  the  teacher 


THE  FIRST  DAY  OF  SCHOOL  21 

follows  faithfully.  It  is  a  rare  thing  to  find  a  teacher 
who  is  careless  about  following  a  schedule  of  classes 
and  who  is  not  also  neglecting  seriously  some  line  or 
lines  of  work.  The  tendency  in  such  instances  is  to 
give  too  much  time  to  a  few  lines  of  work  which  stand 
in  particular  favor  with  the  teacher. 

The  Rules  and  Regulations.  Every  school  has 
rules  and  regulations  which  are  peculiar  to  it.  The 
teacher  should  get  a  copy  of  these  regulations  and 
become  familiar  with  them  before  the  first  day  of 
school.  Unless  he  does  this,  he  is  likely  to  violate 
some  important  requirement  of  the  board  uninten- 
tionally. These  regulations  usually  define  the  duties 
of  pupils  and  the  teacher,  place  certain  limits  upon 
the  entry  of  pupils,  regulate  the  length  of  the  school  day, 
and  many  other  details  with  which  the  teacher  should 
be  familiar.  It  is  unfortunate,  however,  that  in  many 
systems  of  schools  many  sections  of  the  printed  regula- 
tions are  not  and  never  have  been  enforced.  An 
attempt  to  enforce  them  to  the  letter  would  meet 
with  violent  opposition.  It  might  be  well  for  the 
teacher  to  find  out  from  the  former  teacher,  or  from 
those  in  authority,  how  many  of  the  so-called  "regula- 
tions" are  not  enforced.  The  teacher  who  has  taught 
several  years  has  little  difficulty  in  determining  what 
regulations  are  not  commonly  enforced.  But  there 
are  always  some  regulations  which  should  never  be 
violated  by  the  teacher  without  permission  from  the 
board  of  education  or  those  higher  in  authority  than  the 
teacher  to  whom  certain  discretionary  powers  are  given. 


22  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

Supplies  for  the  Pupils.  The  teacher  in  the 
ungraded  school  and  those  in  charge  of  the  school 
system  must  see  that  supplies  are  available  for  the 
pupils  before  the  opening  of  school.  These  supplies 
should  be  ordered  two  or  three  weeks  before  the  opening 
of  school  in  order  to  avoid  inconvenience  on  account 
of  delays  in  shipment,  which  are  incident  to  the 
beginning  of  the  school  year.  Almost  every  school 
has  established  methods  of  securing  its  supplies.  The 
teacher  needs  to  become  familiar  with  the  prevailing 
method  and  to  conform  to  it.  If  the  school  furnishes 
some  or  all  of  the  supplies,  the  teacher  should  see  that 
they  are  secured  and  delivered  at  the  school  before 
the  first  day.  It  is  difficult  to  carry  on  the  work  of 
the  school  even  for  a  few  days  without  adequate 
supplies. 

The  School  Plant.  The  teacher  may  be  careful  to 
provide  for  all  the  conditions  suggested  above,  and  yet 
fail  to  secure  a  desirable  opening.  The  school  plant 
is  an  important  part  of  the  school  equipment,  and  it 
must  be  in  good  condition  if  it  is  to  serve  its  highest 
function.  The  condition  of  the  plant  can  be  deter- 
mined only  by  a  visit  to  the  school.  If  the  teacher 
is  the  one  highest  in  authority  in  the  school,  he  should 
visit  the  buildings  and  grounds  three  or  four  weeks 
before  the  opening  of  school  to  see  if  repairs  are  neces- 
sary to  place  the  plant  in  proper  condition  for  the 
work  of  the  year.  The  floor  should  be  thoroughly 
cleaned,  the  walls  and  ceiling  put  in  an  attractive  condi- 
tion, the  window  panes  replaced  if  any  are  broken,  the 


THE  FIRST  DAY  OF  SCHOOL  23 

curtains  made  attractive,  the  desks,  maps,  and  the 
whole  interior  of  the  room  put  in  order.  All  of  these 
details  have  their  influence  on  the  school  from  the 
first  day,  and  a  glance  at  the  conditions  found  in  a 
schoolroom  serves  as  a  fair  index  of  the  teacher.  The 
teacher  should  not  confine  his  efforts  to  the  interior 
of  the  school;  he  should  examine  the  grounds  to  see  if 
they  are  suitable  for  the  opening  day.  The  grass 
often  needs  to  be  mown,  and  the  grounds  cleared  of 
the  rubbish  which  has  accumulated  during  the  vaca- 
tion. The  fence  may  have  become  unsightly;  if  so, 
it  needs  to  be  put  in  order.  If  the  building  is  a  frame 
one,  it  may  need  painting.  If  the  outhouse  is  located 
outside,  it  may  be  seriously  in  need  of  repairs.  If  these 
things  are  needed,  and  if  the  teacher  can  induce  the 
board  of  directors  to  visit  the  premises  with  him 
before  the  opening  of  school,  they  will  be  likely  to 
attend  to  all  the  apparent  needs.  It  is  much  easier 
to  have  these  steps  taken  during  the  vacation  than  it 
is  to  induce  members  of  the  board  to  do  the  work  after 
school  begins.  By  the  time  the  first  day  arrives 
everything  about  the  school  should  have  a  neat  and 
orderly  appearance.  Pupils  who  are  greeted  on  the 
first  day  with  an  outlook  as  here  suggested  will  uncon- 
sciously enter  upon  their  duties  in  the  school  with  a 
wholesome  and  business-like  spirit.  These  surround- 
ings will  serve  as  an  excellent  stimulus  throughout  the 
entire  year. 

The  influence  upon  the  lives  and  conduct  of  children 
produced  by  well-ordered  and  neatly  kept  environ- 


24  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

ment  cannot  be  overestimated.  Pupils  have  a  strong 
disposition  to  destroy  and  deface  unsightly  objects. 
They  will  knock  down  a  tottering  fence,  tear  a  loose 
board  from  the  building,  cut  initials  and  holes  in  a 
disfigured  desk,  misuse  a  tattered  book,  and  otherwise 
mistreat  things  that  are  on  the  decline.  On  the  other 
hand,  children  have  a  higher  respect  for  order  and 
beauty  than  is  often  supposed.  A  few  years  ago  a 
teacher  visited  a  school  before  the  opening  day.  He 
found  the  desks  in  the  school  in  very  bad  condition. 
He  complained  to  the  board  of  education  about  the 
condition  of  the  desks;  they  were  carved  with  letters 
and  pictures  which  rendered  them  unattractive, 
besides  almost  unfitting  them  for  service.  He  asked 
the  board  if  something  could  not  be  done  to  improve 
the  desks.  The  board  replied,  "It's  no  use  to  go  to 
the  trouble  to  put  these  desks  in  condition;  they  will 
be  no  better  at  the  end  of  the  year.  We  have  in 
this  school  the  worst  boys  found  anywhere."  They 
were  assured  by  the  teacher  that,  if  the  desks  were 
put  in  good  condition,  he  would  see  that  they  were 
kept  in  as  good  repair.  All  the  desks  were  dressed 
and  refinished  in  accordance  with  the  request  of  the 
teacher.  The  tendency  to  carve  the  desks  disappeared 
almost  entirely;  during  the  year  there  was  only  one 
case  of  defacement.  The  pupil  was  required  to  scrape 
his  desk  so  as  to  remove  all  traces  of  the  damage;  he 
was  then  shown  how  to  fill  and  varnish  the  desk  and 
place  it  in  as  good  condition  as  it  was  before  the 
damage  was  done. 


THE  FIRST  DAY  OF  SCHOOL  25 

Arranging  Details.  A  few  days  before  the  school 
begins  the  teacher  should  go  to  his  school  and  make 
all  necessary  arrangements  for  the  specific  work  of 
the  first  day.  The  nature  of  the  work  to  be  done 
will  depend  upon  the  character  of  the  school  he  is 
employed  to  teach.  In  an  ungraded  school  the  teacher 
must  make  provision  for  several  grades.  He  should 
place  on  the  board  all  work  which  he  desires  to  use 
the  first  day.  He  should  have  his  program  written 
in  a  conspicuous  place  so  that  all  pupils  may  see  the 
order  of  the  day  without  questions.  He  should  see 
that  the  unused  portion  of  the  board  is  clean,  that 
crayon  is  at  hand,  that  pencils  and  paper  are  ready 
for  quick  distribution  in  case  it  is  necessary  to  provide 
work  for  pupils  unsupplied  with  required  materials. 
The  teacher  should  have  sufficient  work  planned  for 
every  class  that  he  may  keep  every  pupil  occupied 
from  the  beginning  to  the  close  of  the  first  day,  even 
if  every  child  comes  to  school  the  first  day  without  a 
single  book  or  pencil.  Nothing  should  be  left  for  the 
first  day  but  the  unlocking  of  the  door.  There  will 
be  duties  the  first  day  which  will  arise  unforeseen 
sufficient  to  occupy  the  teacher's  time. 

The  First  Morning.  The  teacher  should  make  it  a 
point  to  be  at  school  early  the  first  morning,  although 
he  may  have  arranged  every  detail  in  advance.  He 
should  be  at  his  desk  an  hour  before  the  time  of  opening 
school.  Some  of  the  pupils  will  arrive  early  and 
others  later.  He  can  arrange  temporary  seats  for 
them  as  they  arrive.  Some  new  pupils  will  be  among 


26  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

the  arrivals — pupils  from  other  schools,  besides  begin- 
ning pupils  in  the  first  grade.  Pupils  from  other 
schools  should  be  placed,  at  least  temporarily,  in  the 
grade  indicated  by  their  cards,  if  they  possess  promo- 
tion cards.  Pupils  who  do  not  bring  with  them 
evidence  of  their  standing  in  the  school  formerly 
attended  should  be  examined  orally  after  school  hours. 
It  is  not  advisable  to  attempt  to  grade  such  pupils 
while  school  is  in  session.  A  written  test  will  be 
found  unsatisfactory  in  most  cases  as  a  means  of 
determining  the  proper  grade  for  outside  pupils. 
During  the  vacation  they  have  forgotten  much,  and 
the  new  conditions,  involving  a  new  school  and  a 
strange  teacher,  would  very  likely  yield  results  which 
would  be  very  misleading.  A  better  way  to  deter- 
mine their  classification  is  to  require  them  to  work 
under  the  direction  of  the  teacher.  The  age  of  a 
pupil  and  the  number  of  years  he  has  been  in  school 
will  enable  the  teacher  to  make  a  reasonable  guess  as 
to  the  grade  in  which  he  belongs.  A  few  other  ques- 
tions to  determine  what  subjects  he  has  studied  and 
the  character  of  the  books  used  will  supply  additional 
information.  When  the  teacher  has  sufficient  evi- 
dence to  estimate  the  probable  grade  of  a  pupil,  he 
should  then  test  his  judgment  by  requiring  the  pupil  to 
perform  some  work  of  the  grade  decided  upon.  The 
character  of  the  pupil's  reading  may  be  relied  upon 
for  a  pupil  below  the  fourth  grade  to  determine  his 
grade,  but  it  is  well  to  test  the  arithmetic  of  the 
grade  in  addition.  If  these  two  branches  show  suf- 


THE  FIRST  DAY  OF  SCHOOL  27 

ficiently  well  to  enable  the  pupil  to  do  the  work  of  the 
grade,  it  will  not  be  necessary  in  most  cases  to  make 
further  tests.  With  pupils  above  the  fourth  grade  the 
character  of  the  work  they  are  able  to  do  in  arithmetic 
is  a  fairly  reliable  standard  upon  which  to  judge 
their  grade. 

School  should  be  called  on  the  opening  day  at  the 
appointed  time  for  beginning.  The  teacher  should 
not  vary  from  the  time  a  minute.  The  teacher  may 
cultivate  the  habit  of  promptness  in  his  pupils  more 
by  the  manner  in  which  he  conducts  the  school  than 
any  amount  of  sermonizing  on  punctuality. 

If  the  teacher  has  made  a  careful  study  of 
his  school,  as  suggested,  taking  the  roll  will  be  a 
simple  matter;  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  call  the 
names  on  his  list  and  check  those  who  are  absent. 
If  there  are  others  present,  their  names  may  then 
be  taken. 

The  pupils  in  the  several  classes  should  now  be 
designated,  and  their  work  assigned.  The  nature  of 
the  work  to  be  done  the  first  day  should  be  such  as 
to  require  few  books,  if  there  is  a  likelihood  of  pupils 
being  unsupplied.  The  teacher  who  has  made  careful 
preparation  of  all  details  should  be  able  to  start  his 
classes  at  once  in  the  order  provided  on  his  program. 
The  direction  for  the  movement  of  classes  should  be 
given  when  the  classes  are  called;  the  plan  followed 
should  be  the  one  which  is  to  be  used  through  the 
year.  It  is  well  to  insist  from  the  start  upon  strict 
compliance  with  all  directions. 


28  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

Beginning  Pupils.  If  the  teacher  must  decide 
upon  the  eligibility  of  beginning  pupils,  he  should  look 
well  to  the  age  of  each  child.  In  the  rural  com- 
munities many  pupils  are  entered  before  the  legal  age. 
It  is  usually  a  mistake  to  permit  pupils  to  enter  school, 
with  the  intention  of  doing  first-grade  work,  when 
they  are  five  years  of  age.  Many  of  these  pupils 
make  slow  progress  because  of  immaturity,  and  often 
must  repeat  the  work  the  next  year.  Parents  are 
frequently  careless  about  the  attendance  of  under-age 
pupils;  this  tends  to  augment  the  unusual  difficulty. 
A  difference  of  one  year  in  the  age  of  a  beginner  makes 
a  vast  difference  in  his  rate  of  progress  in  school. 

Putting  Pupils  Back.  The  teacher  should  avoid 
hasty  judgments  as  to  a  change  in  the  grading  of 
pupils  by  the  former  teacher.  He  should  not  begin 
his  first  day  by  demoting  pupils;  he  should  not  do  this 
the  first  week  or  the  first  month  in  most  instances. 
Until  the  teacher  and  pupils  understand  each  other, 
it  is  impossible  to  form  a  correct  judgment.  A  little 
review  and  a  little  readjustment  may  work  wonders  in 
the  ability  of  some  pupils.  Some  pupils  may  show  very 
little  ability  to  do  the  work  of  a  grade  at  the  beginning 
of  the  year,  but  after  a  few  weeks  do  very  acceptable 
work.  It  may  be  that  some  pupils  belong  to  that 
group  of  slow  learners  who  get  only  a  superficial 
amount  at  best.  It  may  be  that  these  pupils  have 
already  repeated  the  work  of  the  previous  year,  and 
to  put  them  back  would  be  a  gross  injustice  to  them 
unless  it  has  been  found,  by  a  trial  of  several  weeks, 


THE  FIRST  DAY  OF  SCHOOL  29 

impossible  for  them  to  do  profitable  work  in  the 
grade.  The  inexperienced  teacher  is  very  likely  to 
conclude  at  once  that  some  of  the  pupils  are  "graded 
too  high."  This  is  usually  the  first  indication  that 
the  teacher  has  met  the  limit  of  his  skill;  it  is  the  first 
proof  that  he  cannot  solve  offhand  the  problems  of  the 
school  so  readily  as  he  had  judged  before  beginning 
his  work.  It  shows  the  true  relation  between  the 
"supply  and  demand"  of  the  teacher's  skill.  From 
this  day  on  he  will  find  ample  scope  for  his  professional 
ingenuity  to  keep  down  the  conviction  that  pupils  are 
graded  too  high.  The  teacher  is  likely  to  overestimate 
his  own  skill  and  to  place  too  much  confidence  in  the 
infallibility  of  his  methods  of  procedure.  Pupils  are 
capable  of  doing  very  difficult  work  in  almost  any 
subject  with  skillful  direction.  Let  the  teacher  strive 
earnestly  to  make  his  skill  a  match  for  his  pupil's  lack 
of  ability  before  he  tries  the  radical  cure  of  the  difficulty 
by  resorting  to  demotion. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  the  first  day  of  school  so  important?     What 
general  preparation  should  the  teacher  make  for  the  first  day? 

2.  What  sources  should  the  teacher  consult  for  information 
about  a  school  whose  management  he  is  to  assume?     How  long 
before   the   first   day   should    he    begin    to   prepare   for   the 
opening? 

3.  Explain  how  the  teacher  may  determine  the  classification 
of  the  pupils  in  his  school  before  the  first  day.     What  disposition 
should  be  made  of  pupils  entering  from  other  schools,  without 
report  cards?     What  would  be  the  danger  in  basing  their  classi- 
fication on  written  examination? 


30  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

4.  Explain  in  detail  how  a  teacher  may  arrange  a  complete 
program  before  the  opening  of  school.     What  are  the  difficulties 
encountered  hi  attempting  to  arrange  the  program  after  the 
first  day? 

5.  State  the  number  of  periods  per  week  that  should  be 
given  to  the  subjects  commonly  found  on  the  program.    What 
per  cent  of  the  school  day  should  be  given  to  each  subject? 

6.  Give  three  or  four  factors  that  should  be  considered  in 
arranging  the  several  studies  on  the  program. 

7.  What  attention  should  be  given  to  the  school  building 
and  grounds  before  the  opening  of  schools?     Explain  how  proper 
attention  to  these  matters  may  contribute  greatly  to  the  success 
of  the  year. 

8.  Explain  what  is  commonly  accepted  as  a  proper  standard 
of  lighting  for  a  school.     Does  your  school  meet  this  standard? 
If  you  know  the  height  of  a  pupil,  how  may  you  determine  the 
height  of  the  seat  necessary  to  seat  him  comfortably? 

9.  Most  school  rooms  are  ventilated  by  some  form  of  con- 
vection air  currents.     Explain  what  this  means  and  show  how 
this  operates  in  your,  school.    What  provision  has  your  school 
for  regulating  these  currents? 

10.  What   is   meant  by  the   "psychology  of  suggestion"? 
Explain  how  this  applies  to  the  conduct   of   pupils  toward 
defaced  desks  and  other  objects  about  the  schools.      How  may 
pupils  be   led  to  keep   the  school  furnishings  in  good  condi- 
tion?    What  argument  would  you  present  to  a  school  board 
to   influence   the  members  to  put  the  school  plant  in  good 
repair? 

11.  What  arrangements  should  the  teacher  make  at  the 
school  before  the  first  day?    What  materials  should  he  have  on 
hand? 

12.  Why  should  a  teacher  be  at  his  school  unusually  early  the 
first  day? 

13.  What  is  the  danger  of  ignoring  the  classification  of  the 
former  teacher,  and  putting  the  pupils  back  because  they  show 
weakness  in  their  work?    How  long  should  a  pupil  be  given  to 


THE  FIRST  DAY  OF  SCHOOL  31 

show  his  fitness  to  do  the  work  of  the  grade  to  which  he  has 
been  promoted? 

14.  What  special  caution  should  be  exercised  by  the  inex- 
perienced teacher  in  making  changes  in  classifications? 


CHAPTER  III 

POINT  OF  VIEW  IN  DISCIPLINE 

Importance  of  Good  Discipline.  The  question  of 
discipline  is  as  old  as  the  school,  yet  it  is  the  vital 
question;  superintendents  and  boards  of  education 
hesitate  to  employ  teachers  whose  records  as  disci- 
plinarians are  poor.  It  is  generally  admitted  that 
without  good  control  very  few  of  the  school  virtues 
can  be  realized,  regardless  of  the  scholarship,  profes- 
sional skill,  and  other  attributes  the  teacher  may 
possess.  School  authorities  may  tolerate  poor  in- 
struction for  a  long  time  and  be  ignorant  of  it,  but 
they  rarely  endure  weak  discipline  in  a  teacher, 
because  it  is  easily  known  to  all. 

One  who  visits  many  schools  will  soon  be  con- 
vinced that  control  is  at  the  foundation  of  effective 
school- teaching.  The  question  of  method  of  control 
may  have  some  importance,  but  the  imperative  thing 
is  to  secure  it  by  one  method  or  another.  Loose 
control  results  in  inferior  work,  because  strict  applica- 
tion is  impossible  under  this  condition,  and  without 
strict  application  and  undivided  attention  to  duty  a 
low  grade  of  work  is  inevitable.  A  teacher  who  has 
succeeded  in  securing  close  application  to  school 
tasks  usually  accomplishes  a  fair  degree  of  work  in 

32 


POINT  OF  VIEW  IN  DISCIPLINE  33 

spite  of  poor  methods,  but  the  opposite  condition  is 
seldom  found. 

In  a  certain  school  the  principal  of  the  building  had 
twenty-five  eighth-grade  pupils  in  her  room.  Her 
control  was  weak  as  was  evidenced  by  continuous 
humming  and  communication.  Note-writing  was 
common  and  the  movement  of  the  pupils  from  one 
part  of  the  room  to  another  was  permitted  without 
any  apparent  restriction.  The  pupils  were  always 
poorly  prepared  on  their  lessons  and  manifested  little 
interest  in  their  work.  They  had  failed  to  be  im- 
pressed with  the  fact  that  school  work  is  important 
and  serious  business.  Just  across  the  hall  from  this 
teacher  was  a  teacher  who  had  forty-five  pupils  in  her 
room;  she  had  seventh-  and  eighth-grade  pupils. 
These  pupils,  of  course,  were  very  much  the  same  in 
personal  characteristics  as  thfe  pupils  in  the  first  room; 
they  were  from  the  same  families,  many  of  them,  or 
they  were  close  friends  and  associates  of  them.  Their 
whole  attitude,  however,  toward  their  school  work 
was  radically  different.  There  was  not  a  word  of 
communication  in  any  form  at  any  time  during  the 
session;  they  applied  themselves  continuously  and 
vigorously  to  their  tasks.  Every  question  from  the 
teacher  was  followed  with  eagerness;  the  pupils  were 
well  prepared  for  the  work  when  the  recitation  was 
called,  and  every  moment  was  utilized  to  the  best 
advantage.  There  was  no  evident  difference  in  the 
technical  skill  of  the  two  teachers;  the  one  seemed  to 
have  as  much  native  ability  as  the  other,  but  the 


34  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

difference  in  their  schools  resulted  from  a  difference 
in  the  views  they  held  regarding  control. 

Ability  to  Control  Acquired.  Teachers  differ  in 
native  ability  to  control,  but  very  few  are  strong  in  it 
without  mastering  to  some  extent  by  careful  study 
the  details  involved  in  it.  There  is  no  part  of  the 
work  of  the  school  which  we  are  willing  to  have  the 
teacher  to  attempt  without  systematic  study  under 
an  experienced  teacher.  In  the  matter  of  discipline, 
however,  the  teacher  has  received  very  little  instruc- 
tion; he  has  been  set  adrift  to  find  his  own  course. 
Discipline  has  been  regarded  too  long  as  an  incidental 
thing.  The  point  insisted  upon  here  is  that  the 
teacher  must  make  as  definite  preparation  to  succeed 
in  discipline  as  he  must  make  to  teach  arithmetic  or 
any  other  study  successfully.  One  may  be  thoroughly 
versed  in  the  principles  of  teaching  and  distinguished 
for  his  breadth  of  scholarship,  but  be  grossly  ignorant 
of  the  simplest  details  necessary  to  control  a  school. 

Every  teacher  should  have  a  well-organized  plan 
.of  control  before  entering  upon  his  duties.  He  should 
be  familiar  with  a  large  number  of  regulations,  devices, 
,and  practices  generally  accepted  as  necessary  to  strong 
control.  Without  something  definite  in  the  way  of 
plan  of  procedure,  the  teacher  is  likely  to  adopt  some 
new  scheme  which  requires  a  teacher  of  exceptional 
ability  to  operate  it,  or  let  the  school  drift  along  with- 
out maintaining  even  a  fair  standard  of  discipline. 
Novel  schemes  of  control  are  unsafe  for  the  inexpe- 
rienced teacher.  Almost  any  plan  of  control  may  be 


POINT  OF  VIEW  IN  DISCIPLINE  35 

highly  successful  with  certain  teachers  or  in  certain 
schools.  The  safe  course  for  the  majority  of  teachers 
is  to  follow  conventional  methods  until  they  can  judge 
more  fully  concerning  their  own  powers  in  this  regard. 

Ignoring  the  Question.  There  are  a  great  many 
shades  of  opinion  respecting  methods  of  discipline. 
Certain  types  of  teachers  try  to  escape  the  problem  of 
discipline  by  regarding  it  lightly  or  ignoring  it  entirely. 
They  endeavor  to  convince  themselves  that  good 
discipline  is  unnecessary,  impossible,  or  undesirable. 
They  attempt  to  justify  the  low  standard  of  discipline 
in  their  schools  by  saying,  "Children  will  be  children." 
"I  like  mischievous  children,"  and  certain  other  stock 
expressions.  They  may  partially  admit  that  good 
discipline  is  desirable  but  attempt  to  excuse  them- 
selves on  the  plea  of  "lax  parental  control,"  "the 
weakness  of  the  former  teacher,"  or  some  other  false 
claim.  All  these  excuses  are  strong  evidence  of  weak- 
ness in  the  teacher.  They  are  akin  to  the  defense  made 
by  incompetent  public  officials  for  their  failure  to 
enforce  the  law.  They  claim  "Vice  is  necessary," 
"People  will  not  support  them,"  and  so  on. 

Hiding  behind  Defenses.  There  is  a  class  of 
weak  disciplinarians  who  attempt  to  conceal  them- 
selves behind  high-sounding  and  all-inclusive  phrases. 
They  frankly  admit  that  their  discipline  is  not  strong. 
They  insist  that  they  could  make  it  perfect  if  they 
chose  to  do  so,  but  it  would  not  afford  that  fine  oppor- 
tunity for  "self-expression"  which  always  exists  in  the 
type  of  school  they  conduct.  This  type  of  spineless 


36  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

schoolmaster  is  easily  recognized  by  his  lavish  and 
eloquent  use  of  such  large  terms  as  "personal  freedom," 
"training  for  a  democracy,"  "schooling  for  citizen- 
ship," "social  efficiency,"  and  "control  from  within." 
He  decries  strict  discipline  with  the  harshest  terms  at 
his  command.  He  uses  freely  in  his  denunciation  such 
terms  as  "lockstep,"  "despotism,"  "czar,"  and  "school 
a  prison."  These  arguments  lose  their  significance  in 
the  presence  of  facts.  It  is  almost  invariably  true 
that  the  schools  which  maintain  a  strong  discipline 
have  none  of  the  attributes  attributed  to  them,  while, 
at  the  same  time,  they  have  most  of  those  desirable 
qualities  which  are  supposed  to  exist  hi  the  other  type 
of  schools;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  advocates  of 
great  freedom  almost  universally  fail  to  develop  those 
results  which  they  give  as  a  reason  for  their  type  of 
discipline. 

If  discipline  were  made  an  end  in  itself,  and  were 
it  carried  to  the  greatest  extreme  imagined  by  its 
opponents,  all  the  arguments  offered  against  it  would 
be  vital;  but  experience  proves  abundantly  that  the 
danger  point  is  not  in  this  direction;  it  is  almost  always 
in  the  other  direction.  Very  few  teachers  wish  or 
strive  for  better  discipline  than  is  necessary  to  carry 
on  the  work  of  the  school  without  loss  of  time  and 
energy  of  the  pupils.  This  standard  should  be  attained 
in  every  school. 

It  is  possible  to  carry  any  good  to  an  extreme 
where  it  becomes  either  an  absurdity  or  an  evil. 
Praying,  for  example,  is  a  good  thing,  but  no  sane  man 


POINT  OF  VIEW  IN  DISCIPLINE  37 

would  think  of  living  on  his  knees  twenty-four  hours 
each  day.  It  is  an  admirable  recreation  to  sit  in  a 
rocking  chair,  but  suppose  one  should  sit  in  a  rocking 
chair  all  the  time,  or  even  twelve  hours  each  day!  It 
is  a  good  thing  to  bathe,  to  take  exercise,  to  eat  good 
food,  to  "swat  the  fly,"  and  to  do  many  other  things, 
but  they  must  be  done  in  accordance  with  certain 
limitations. 

The  usual  arguments,  therefore,  presented  as 
excuses  for  lax  control  are  not  well  founded.  They 
are  the  arguments  of  the  unthinking,  the  misguided, 
and  the  weakling.  They  are  the  same  characteristic 
arguments  used  by  parents  who  lack  sufficient  wisdom 
and  backbone  to  control  their  children,  and  who  let 
them  run  the  streets  at  night  and  grow  pale  and 
hollow-eyed  by  cigarettes  supplemented  by  other  dis- 
sipations. It  is  this  type  of  parent  who  occasionally 
waits  upon  the  teacher  who  insists  upon  proper  conduct 
from  their  misguided  children. 

"Adolescence"  and  Other  Excuses.  Some  teachers 
are  too  resourceful  in  their  discovery  of  causes  and 
excuses  for  disorder  in  their  schools.  (No  attempt  is 
made  here  to  cast  discredit  upon  a  careful  study  of 
all  the  elements  that  influence  the  conduct  of  pupils; 
these  should  be  given  full  credit  for  the  part  they  play, 
but  no  more.)  It  is  very  easy  to  discover  some 
supposed  reason  for  every  violation  of  school  require- 
ments, and  excuse  the  offender.  Some  teachers  try 
to  explain  everything  on  the  plea  of  adolescence, 
nervousness,  or  some  other  physical  abnormality.  It 


38    PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

is  rather  a  significant  phenomenon  that  certain  types 
of  teachers  always  have  an  oversupply  of  "adolescents"; 
the  appearance  of  the  "phenomenon"  is  not  mani- 
fested with  the  preceding  teacher  nor  with  the  follow- 
ing one.  If  the  teacher  is  transferred  to  another 
grade,  high  or  low,  the  same  characteristic  acts  of 
misconduct  result  from  "adolescence,"  "nervousness," 
etc.  The  teacher  may  have  only  one  class  of  the 
freshmen,  sophomores,  juniors,  or  seniors,  while  the 
other  classes  are  taught  by  other  teachers,  but  the  same 
supply  of  the  abnormal  commodity  is  maintained  in  the 
classes  of  the  teacher  in  question,  and  in  her  classes 
only.  Some  of  the  symptoms  do  not  seem  to  be  con- 
fined to  children  of  particular  age  limits,  but  they 
include  children  of  all  ages,  where  certain  types  of 
teachers  are  in  control. 

A  teacher  who  has  not  met  ordinary  requirements 
himself  for  maintaining  proper  conduct  in  school  is 
not  warranted  in  seeking  excuses  elsewhere.  A 
teacher  who  through  his  own  ignorance  or  neglect 
permits  persistent  disorder  in  a  lower  grade  is  training 
an  incorrigible  for  an  upper-grade  teacher;  the  upper- 
grade  teacher  who  permits  such  conduct  is  shifting 
the  problem  to  the  high  school  teacher;  and  the  high 
school  teacher  who  does  not  meet  the  issue  is  training 
a  law-breaker  for  society;  and  all  are  contributing  to 
the  inefficiency  of  the  pupil  when  he  leaves  school. 

Theory  vs.  Reality  in  Discipline.  There  is  a  vast 
difference  between  imaginary  and  real  results  following 
certain  systems  of  discipline.  Some  months  since  the 


POINT  OF  VIEW  IN  DISCIPLINE  39 

author  visited  the  school  of  a  teacher  who  was  a  very 
strong  and  eloquent  advocate  of  great  freedom  on  the 
part  of  the  child — what  he  really  meant  was  license. 
The  conditions  are  given  here  conservatively  that 
they  may  cause  the  reader  to  take  with  considerable 
allowance  much  he  may  hear  claimed  for  certain  novel 
schemes  for  school  management.  The  first  thing  that 
impressed  one  in  visiting  the  school  was  the  time 
required  to  call  the  school  to  order.  The  principal  in 
charge — the  real  advocate  himself — sounded  the  call 
bell;  no  person  in  the  room  seemed  to  hear  the  bell,  at 
least  no  move  was  made  on  the  part  of  the  pupils 
to  take  seats.  The  bell  was  sounded  again  and  again, 
but  the  pupils  continued  to  talk  without  making  any 
attempt  to  take  their  seats.  The  teacher  picked  up 
an  eighteen-inch  ruler  and  began  to  pound  on  the 
table,  at  the  same  time  reinforcing  his  efforts  by 
calling  and  motioning  those  nearest  him  to  be  seated. 
At  the  end  of  just  six  minutes  by  the  clock  the  pupils 
were  in  their  seats  ready  for  work.  The  climax  of 
absurdity  was  reached  when  the  teacher  then  pro- 
ceeded to  tell  the  pupils  in  a  complimentary  way  "how 
readily  they  took  their  seats  as  soon  as  they  heard  the 
bell!"  "You  are  so  interested,"  said  he,  "that  you  do 
not  hear  the  call  to  order;  now  I  like  to  see  you  enjoy 
yourselves,  but  listen  for  the  signal."  At  the  begin- 
ning of  each  session  the  same  process  was  repeated  with 
the  same  loss  of  time.  The  school  was  called  to  order 
four  times  each  day,  thus,  twenty-four  minutes  were 
consumed  each  day  where  less  than  four  minutes 


40     PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

could  have  done  the  work  more  effectively  from  every 
point  of  view.  Dismissals  were  no  less  conspicuous; 
when  the  pupils  passed  into  the  assembly  room  after 
the  last  class  before  an  intermission,  all  was  anxiety 
for  the  closing  signal.  Some  of  the  pupils  were  leaning 
far  out  into  the  aisle,  with  one  foot  advanced  in  the 
direction  of  the  door  and  the  other  braced  for  a  vigorous 
push;  the  right  hand  was  firmly  gripped  on  the  top  of 
the  desk  and  the  left  sustaining  the  weight  of  the  body 
from  the  seat;  all  was  in  readiness  to  spring  toward  the 
door  at  the  mere  suggestion  of  the  signal  for  dis- 
missal. When  the  signal  was  given,  there  was  a  grand 
rush  for  the  door  with  all  the  "courtesy"  incident  to  a 
performance  of  this  character.  The  pupils  ran  into 
the  hall,  through  the  hall  down  the  stairways  into  the 
hall  below,  and  out  of  the  building,  terminating  the 
exit  with  a  whoop. 

'The  study  hall  of  this  school  was  one  continuous 
round  of  communication;  missile- throwing  was  the  rule; 
the  walls  of  the  room  bore  evidences  of  encounters 
with  apple  cores  and  other  refuse;  the  ceiling  had 
clinging  to  it  no  less  than  a  hundred  paper  wads;  the 
floor  at  the  close  of  school  was  strewn  with  paper, 
beans,  corn,  and  shot.  It  is  unnecessary  to  go  further 
into  this  situation;  it  is  needless  to  say  that  good  recita- 
tions were  the  extreme  exception,  and  failure  was 
common,  not  only  daily,  but  monthly.  The  worst 
feature  of  all  was  the  fact  that  when  these  pupils 
were  questioned  in  their  liberties,  they  invariably 
"gave  the  teacher  a  piece  of  their  mind,"  Perhaps 


POINT  OF  VIEW  IN  DISCIPLINE  41 

this  was  a  high  quality  of  "training  for  citizenship." 
The  office  of  the  principal  was  always  crowded 
with  offending  pupils.  It  was  very  evident  that  more 
effort  was  spent  in  the  school  to  keep  the  conduct  of 
the  pupils  within  these  loose  bounds  than  would  have 
been  necessary  to  maintain  a  good  standard  of  disci- 
pline. So  far  as  interfering  with  the  will  of  the  pupils 
is  concerned,  more  of  it  was  done  in  this  school  than 
would  be  the  case  in  a  well-organized  school. 

Contrast,  if  you  will,  the  school  described  above, 
with  a  school  managed  by  a  principal  with  a  different 
view  of  discipline.  This  principal  had  six  hundred 
pupils  in  his  school — nearly  double  the  number  in  the 
first  school.  When  the  pupils  were  called  to  order,  all 
communication,  both  audible  and  inaudible,  ceased  at 
the  first  tap  of  the  bell.  Within  thirty  seconds  all 
the  pupils  were  in  their  seats  ready  to  pass  to  their 
classes.  The  study  hall  was  quiet,  and  all  the  pupils 
devoted  the  study  time  to  the  preparation  of  the 
assigned  lessons.  The  recitation  work  showed  famili- 
arity with  the  work;  failures  were  the  exception.  The 
school  was  dismissed  by  rows  in  an  orderly  manner, 
and  all  the  pupils  marched  in  an  orderly  manner 
through  the  halls  and  to  the  exits.  No  pupils  were  in 
the  office  of  the  principal  for  discipline,  and  only 
occasionally  was  it  necessary  to  report  pupils  for 
disorder.  Measured  by  the  standards  of  training  for 
citizenship,  personal  freedom,  self-control,  social  effi- 
ciency, scholarship,  or  other  desirable  standards,,  the 
latter  school  is  greatly  superior  to  the  former. 


42     PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

Discipline  is  largely  a  question  of  conservation  of 
energy.  If  the  energy  of  the  school  goes  into  play, 
it  cannot  be  used  for  work;  brain  cells  which  are  con- 
sumed in  devising  a  trick  to  play  on  a  schoolmate 
cannot  be  utilized  in  the  solution  of  a  problem.  Such 
a  school  reminds  one  of  an  old  rickety  vehicle  going 
along  the  street.  A  school  which  is  well  managed  is 
comparable  to  a  frictionless  piece  of  machinery.  The 
one  has  freedom  of  a  different  character  from  the 
other;  each  will  do  work  after  its  manner.  But  energy 
is  limited;  time  is  limited;  and  life  is  limited. 

Three  General  Conclusions.  It  is  almost  univer- 
sally true  that  (a)  the  teacher  has  the  kind  of  discipline 
he  will  tolerate;  (b)  it  is  easier  to  have  strong  disci- 
pline than  medium  discipline;  and  (c)  good  order  con- 
tributes to  good  order  and  weak  discipline  is  conducive 
to  disorder.  On  the  first  point  it  may  be  said  that 
pupils  are  inclined  to  take  liberties  to  the  point  of 
restraint;  they  are  restrained  about  as  easily  at  one 
point  as  another.  Some  teachers  are  too  cowardly  to 
have  strong  discipline;  they  are  afraid  they  will  not  be 
admired  by  the  pupils  and  patrons.  No  better  course 
could  be  pursued  for  disfavor  than  such  a  policy;  it  is 
very  seldom  that  a  teacher  who  is  thus  yielding  in  his 
control  is  greatly  admired  or  respected  by  either 
pupils  or  patrons. 

If  the  limits  of  liberties  in  a  school  are  not  well 
defined,  pupils  constantly  exceed  the  limit;  the  inva- 
sion of  the  outside  becomes  more  frequent  and  more 
extensive;  the  teacher  must  then  have  days  of  readjust- 


POINT  OF  VIEW  IN  DISCIPLINE  43 

ment.  The  process  of  invasion  begins  again  after  a 
few  days  and  continues  until  the  next  day  of  "readjust- 
ment" is  due.  This  process  continues  throughout  the 
year  and  the  result  is  poor  discipline.  Where  the 
teacher  has  his  school  well  organized,  and  his  plans 
include  a  strict  application  to  the  work  of  the  school, 
his  quality  of  discipline  is  quite  uniform;  pupils  soon 
become  established  in  the  habit  of  industry  and  give 
very  little  thought  to  other  forms  of  activity.  The 
teacher  becomes  unconscious  of  the  existence  of  any 
requirements  respecting  the  conduct  of  the  pupils. 

The  teacher  who  has  strong  discipline  has  very 
little  difficulty  with  new  pupils  who  enter  from  time  to 
time,  although  they  may  have  come  from  schools  of 
lax  control.  The  most  difficult  place  for  a  pupil  to 
practice  disorder  is  in  a  school  of  orderly  pupils.  His 
attempts  are  frowned  upon  by  his  companions,  and 
this  is  a  greater  reproof  than  could  be  given  by  the 
teacher;  besides,  it  is  difficult  to  play  a  game  of  any 
sort  alone.  But,  the  reverse  condition  is  true  of  a 
school  with  lax  discipline;  pupils  who  come  hi  from 
other  schools  soon  enter  into  the  same  spirit  of  idleness 
and  disobedience.  The  most  difficult  place  for  a  pupil 
to  be  orderly  is  in  a  disorderly  school. 

The  teacher  should  understand  that  habit  is  a  large 
element  in  the  conduct  of  pupils.  Habits  of  good 
conduct  and  habits  of  disobedience  may  be  formed 
with  equal  ease. 

Mistaken  Notions  Concerning  Discipline.  The 
question  of  discipline  is  not  a  one-element  matter. 


44  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

Some  teachers  flounder  in  their  management  because 
they  try  to  solve  the  question  by  means  of  a  single 
detail  of  adjustment.  The  question  of  control  is 
related  to  a  great  number  of  things;  all  of  these  con- 
tribute their  part  to  the  character  of  discipline  of  the 
school.  Some  teachers  err  by  supposing  that  disci- 
pline is  separate  and  apart  from  other  considerations; 
others  err  by  supposing  that  it  must  be  maintained 
incidentally;  both  views  are  incomplete.  Discipline 
must  be  treated  directly  and  indirectly;  either  without 
the  other  is  inadequate.  There  is  no  royal  road,  no 
short  cut,  no  magical  way  to  discipline.  It  includes, 
in  a  measure,  the  school  in  its  entirety. 

Not  Just  a  Question  of  Interest.  Discipline  is  not 
"just  a  question  of  interest,"  as  it  is  frequently 
regarded.  The  interest  of  pupils  in  school  tasks  has 
much  to  do  with  their  conduct,  but  it  is  impossible  to 
approach  the  question  of  control  successfully  from  the 
direction  of  interest;  conduct  may  be  such  that  interest 
is  impossible.  Where  there  is  good  discipline  there  is 
usually  interest,  but  the  one  is  not  the  only  cause  of 
the  other;  interest  and  control  are  mutually  cause  and 
effect. 

Not  a  Question  of  Keeping  Pupils  Busy.  Disci- 
pline is  not  a  mere  matter  of  keeping  pupils  provided 
with  plenty  of  work  to  do;  the  pupil  who  causes  the 
teacher  the  most  anxiety  as  to  his  conduct  is  usually 
the  pupil  who  is  the  most  amply  provided  with  work; 
he  is  likely  to  begin  wasting  his  time  in  mischief 
before  he  has  begun  his  assigned  tasks.  This  element 


POINT  OF  VIEW  IN  DISCIPLINE  45 

in  the  problem  is  only  contributory,  as  mentioned 
in  the  case  of  interest.  The  teacher,  however,  who 
has  provided  sufficient  and  suitable  work  has  removed 
a  strong  incentive  for  misconduct.  It  is  difficult  to 
keep  pupils,  unprovided  with  definite  work,  to  any 
standard  of  discipline.  The  teacher  should  make 
ample  provision  for  work  for  every  moment  of  the 
session.  There  should  be  no  idle  moments  waiting  for 
the  signal  for  dismissal,  for  the  appearance  of  special 
teachers  to  give  their  work,  or  for  the  recitation  to  be 
called.  There  should  be  no  long  delays  waiting  for  the 
distribution  of  supplies;  and  there  should  be  no  idle 
moments  while  the  teacher  is  attending  to  the  needs 
of  individual  pupils,  or  listening  to  the  requests  of 
other  teachers  or  other  persons. 

Not  Identical  with  Instructional  Skill  of  Teacher. 
The  skill  of  the  teacher  in  instruction  has  frequently 
been  regarded  as  entirely  responsible  for  the  conduct 
of  pupils  in  the  room  and  the  class.  But  poor  teachers 
are  frequently  good  in  discipline  as  the  term  is  com- 
monly understood;  it  is  certainly  true  that  teachers 
do  not  vary  in  power  to  discipline  in  direct  proportion 
to  their  skill  in  instruction.  It  is  also  true  that  the 
same  teacher  frequently  becomes  strong  in  discipline 
without  any  perceptible  change  in  skill  of  instruction. 
We  must,  then,  consider  technical  instruction  as 
another  contributory  element  in  discipline,  but  not  the 
determinative  element. 

Not  a  Question  of  Sanitation.  Poor  sanitary  regu- 
lations have  often  been  assigned  as  the  cause  of  lax 


46  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

control,  but  this,  like  the  reasons  considered  above,  is 
only  a  partial  cause;  the  teacher  who  is  strong  in 
discipline  may  be  quite  indifferent  to  proper  sanitary 
precautions,  and  the  weak  teacher  may  be  exceptionally 
sensitive  as  regards  such  measures. 

Not  a  Question  of  the  Weather.  The  condition  of 
the  weather  is  given  by  the  teacher  sometimes  as  an 
excuse  for  the  restlessness  of  the  pupils;  pupils  on  bad 
days  are  supposed  to  show  a  greater  inclination  toward 
misconduct.  There  is  no  doubt  that  this  condition  is 
reflected  in  a  small  degree  in  the  school,  but  the  teacher 
who  has  mastered  the  many  other  details  involved  in 
discipline  is  quite  unconscious  of  changes  of  weather 
conditions. 

Not  the  Former  Teacher's  Fault.  When  a  teacher 
assumes  control  of  a  school,  he  should  very  soon 
assume  responsibility  for  the  discipline  as  it  exists  in 
his  room.  It  is  easy  to  attribute  one's  own  failures  to 
others,  but  experience  shows  that  pupils  respond 
quickly  to  the  ideals  and  requirements  of  the  new 
teacher.  There  is  no  way  by  which  pupils  may  be  so 
disciplined  that  they  will  continue  to  meet  require- 
ments in  conduct  without  proper  strength  in  control  of 
subsequent  teachers. 

Parental  Co-operation.  Discipline  would  be  easy  if 
all  parents  exercised  the  proper  control  over  their 
children,  and  if  they  always  gave  the  teacher  liberal 
support  in  the  management  of  their  children,  but  such 
ideal  conditions  seldom  exist.  The  teacher  is  rarely 
given  the  co-operation  of  the  parent  in  dealing  with  a 


POINT  OF  VIEW  IN  DISCIPLINE  47 

severe  case  of  discipline,  when  it  is  most  needed.  In 
such  cases  the  parent  almost  always  takes  the  part  of 
the  child.  Perhaps  this  is  only  natural  for  the  parent. 
It  is  not  argued  here  that  all  parents  assume  this 
attitude;  it  is  not  urged  that  a  majority  or  any  con- 
siderable number  do  so,  but  the  point  insisted  upon  as 
true  is  that  the  parent  whose  child  gives  the  teacher 
the  most  trouble  is  very  likely  to  assume  this  attitude. 
In  some  instances  the  parent  may  make  a  pretense  at 
giving  the  teacher  his  support,  but  in  reality  he  is  in 
opposition  to  the  teacher  in  his  attempt  to  control  his 
child.  Such  parents  usually  blame  the  teacher  for 
whatever  there  may  be  remiss  in  the  conduct  of  the 
child.  The  child  is  usually  bad  because  his  parents 
are  bad,  or  because  they  have  lost  control  of  the  child. 
In  the  latter  instance  their  co-operation  is  worthless. 

A  certain  boy  was  causing  his  teachers  a  great  deal 
of  trouble  at  school;  he  caused  them  more  concern 
than  all  the  other  children  of  the  school.  The  superin- 
tendent explained  the  matter  to  the  president  of  the 
board  of  education,  who  had  served  on  the  board  for 
many  years.  He  said,  "I  am  not  surprised  that  the 
boy  causes  the  teachers  trouble.  I  was  a  member  of 
a  committee,  when  this  boy's  father  was  in  school,  that 
called  upon  the  grandfather  of  this  boy  to  complain 
about  the  conduct  of  this  boy's  father.  The  kind  of 
co-operation  we  received  was  the  most  scathing  abuse 
an  unprincipled  man  could  utter."  So  it  is  always  in 
such  cases.  The  teacher  must,  therefore,  prepare  to 
control  such  cases  single-handed.  It  is  very  certain 


48  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

that  the  teacher  who  approaches  such  parents  only 
complicates  his  problem. 

General  Co-operation  Necessary  for  Strong  Disci- 
pline. All  of  the  forces  of  the  school  should  co- 
operate to  secure  the  highest  standard  of  discipline. 
A  teacher  may  have  the  essential  qualities  for  securing 
control,  but  fail  because  of  the  lack  of  support  of 
those  higher  in  authority.  The  room  teacher  must 
have  the  support  of  the  principal  and  the  superin- 
tendent, and  they  in  turn  must  have  the  support  of 
the  board  of  education. 

Superintendents  often  form  wrong  opinions  regard- 
ing the  ability  of  their  teachers  because  of  the  difference 
in  attitude  which  they  encounter  in  dealing  with  the 
same  pupils  who  give  the  room  teachers  trouble.  This 
difference  in  attitude  often  results  because  the  superin- 
tendent has  greater  authority,  or  it  may  be  due  to  the 
possession  of  greater  muscular  power.  Certain  pupils 
have  a  wholesome  respect  for  muscle  even  if  it  be 
possessed  by  one  who  is,  in  other  respects,  inferior  in 
higher  virtues.  It  is  for  this  reason  unsafe  for  the 
superintendent  to  assume  that  he  possesses  greater 
skill  than  a  teacher  who  is  struggling  with  problems  of 
discipline  until  he  has  analyzed  the  situation  carefully 
and  has  determined  the  real  foundation  for  the 
difference  in  results. 

Division  of  the  Subject.  For  the  sake  of  simplifica- 
tion in  treatment  the  discussion  of  discipline  will  be 
treated  in  the  following  chapters  under  "Discipline  of 
the  Room,"  "Management  of  the  Class,"  and  "Man- 


49 

agement  of  the  Playground."  We  should  understand, 
however,  that  the  character  of  control  in  any  one  of 
the  three  is  reflected  in  the  other  two.  Under  each  of 
these  discussions  many  specific  points  are  given  to 
assist  the  teacher  in  the  proper  organization  of  his  school. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  good  discipline  so  important  in  a  school?     How 
is  it  usually  ranked  among  teachers  of  experience? 

2.  Show  that  the  quality  of  discipline  is  largely  dependent 
upon  the  attitude  of  the  teacher. 

3.  What  is  meant  by  saying  that,  "Ability  to  control  is 
acquired"?     Show  that  a  definite  plan  of  control  is  essential 
to  success.     Why  do  unusual  schemes  often  produce  excellent 
results  in  control?     Why  are  such  schemes  of  doubtful  value 
for  the  inexperienced  teacher? 

4.  Give  the  usual  excuses  offered  by  teachers  to  explain  the 
lax  discipline  in  their  schools. 

5.  What  attributes  are  claimed  by  the  advocates  of  great 
freedom?     What  is  their  criticism  of  schools  that  maintain  strict 
discipline?     From  your  own  observation,  state  to  what  extent 
you  consider  their  claims  and  criticisms  just  and  unjust? 

6.  Discuss  adolescence  and  physical  abnormalities  in  their 
relation  to  the  discipline  of  a  school. 

7.  Discuss  strong  and  weak  discipline  from  the  standpoint 
of  economy  of  time,  the  formation  of  correct  business  habits, 
attitude  toward  authority,  and  growth  in  self-control. 

8.  Show  that   discipline  is  not  a  "one-element  matter." 
In  what  way  is  discipline  related  to  the  entire  school?    In  what 
way  is  discipline  independent  of  other  considerations? 

9.  Show  to  what  extent  discipline  is  and  is  not  (a)  a  question 
of  interest,  (b)  a  question  of  keeping  pupils  busy,  (c)  identical 
with  instructional  skill  of  the  teacher,  (d)  a  question  of  sanita- 
tion, (e)  a  question  of  the  weather,  and  (f)  the  former  teacher's 
fault, 


50  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

10.  Discuss  the  need  of  and  the  difficulties  in  securing  parental 
co-operation  in  the  control  of  pupils.     How  often  during  the 
year  is  a  teacher  likely  to  be  compelled  to  call  to  his  assistance 
the  parent  in  discipline?    What  is  the  effect  on  the  teacher's 
influence  over  his  school  of  frequent  resort  to  higher  authority? 

11.  Explain  the  relation  of  the  principal,  superintendent,  and 
board  of  education  to  the  problem  of  discipline.     Why  does  the 
principal  often  find  a  pupil  easy  to  control  while  the  room  teacher 
finds  the  same  pupil  difficult  to  manage? 


CHAPTER  IV 

DISCIPLINE  IN  THE  ROOM 

THE  teacher  should  give  proper  consideration  from 
the  first  to  the  organization  of  the  school  as  a  whole. 
Many  of  the  problems  of  discipline  are  met  by  preven- 
tion rather  than  by  specific  treatment.  Prevention 
may  often  be  easy  where  correction  is  difficult. 

Govern  without  Show.  The  power  of  the  teacher 
is  seldom  displayed  where  strong  control  exists;  the 
school  seems  to  control  itself  automatically.  Pupils 
are  not  influenced  greatly  by  formal  lectures  regarding 
misconduct.  The  practice  of  discussing  the  misdeeds 
of  a  few  pupils  before  the  school  as  a  whole  is  likely  to 
result  in  positive  harm  rather  than  the  prevention  of 
similar  conduct  in  other  pupils.  The  teacher  should 
counsel  in  private  with  offending  pupils  where  there 
are  but  few  involved.  Extensive  discussions,  there- 
fore, at  the  beginning  of  school  to  outline  what  is 
expected  of  pupils  is  useless.  A  few  general  state- 
ments are  sufficient  to  make  a  beginning.  The  plans 
for  organization,  however,  should  be  full  and  detailed. 

Seating  of  the  Pupils.  The  practice  of  allowing 
pupils  to  select  their  own  seats  at  the  opening  of  school 
is  not  conducive  to  good  discipline.  Very  early  in  the 
year — the  second  day  if  possible — the  teacher  should 
arrange  the  seating  of  all  the  pupils  of  his  room,  This 

51 


52  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

should  be  done  with  the  utmost  care.  He  should  draw 
a  plan  of  the  schoolroom  showing  the  position  of  every 
seat;  he  should  then  take  a  list  of  the  names  of  the 
pupils  and  distribute  them  to  the  best  advantage.  He 
will  find  it  desirable  to  separate  certain  pupils  because 
of  close  friendship,  in  order  to  remove  the  strong 
incentive  for  communication. 

Some  pupils  who  are  especially  troublesome  should 
be  carefully  placed  so  that  they  may  be  at  the  greatest 
disadvantage  for  misconduct.  A  corner  seat  is  a  good 
location  for  such  pupils;  if  the  teacher  has  more  seats 
than  pupils,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  leave  vacant  the 
seats  in  the  rear  of  and  directly  opposite  troublesome 
pupils.  This  plan  may  be  reinforced  by  placing 
pupils  least  likely  to  encourage  the  offender  in  his  ways 
in  the  seats  nearest.  In  the  absence  of  extra  seats  the 
latter  arrangement  is  often  effective.  It  is  a  good 
general  rule  to  seat  all  pupils  just  so  far  as  possible  in 
close  proximity  to  those  with  whom  they  would  have 
the  least  desire  or  reason  to  communicate.  This  plan 
requires  the  mixing  of  classes  in  the  room.  Even  in 
the  high  school,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  seat  upper  class 
pupils  near  lower  class  pupils;  a  great  deal  of  disorder 
that  disturbs  the  school  begins  where  pupils  attempt 
to  confer  relative  to  their  work.  After  the  pupils  have 
been  located,  the  teacher  should  make  changes  when 
conditions  suggest  the  need  of  them. 

Leaving  Seats  without  Permission.  Pupils  should 
not  be  permitted  to  leave  their  seats  during  school 
hours  except  on  permission  from  the  teacher.  A  few 


DISCIPLINE  IN  THE  ROOM  53 

general  permissions  for  the  use  of  the  dictionary  and 
other  references  might  be  given  without  interference 
with  the  general  order  of  the  room,  but  the  liberty  to 
move  from  one  seat  to  another  is  always  productive  of 
evil. 

Leaving  the  Room.  Pupils  should  be  permitted  to 
leave  the  room  only  under  permission  or  definite  regu- 
lation of  the  teacher.  If  the  teacher  grants  the  privi- 
lege without  restriction,  there  is  likely  to  be  much 
misuse  of  the  privilege.  It  is  rarely  possible,  even  in 
the  high  school,  to  grant  this  liberty  without  restric- 
tion. The  teacher  should  keep  a  close  watch  on  all 
permissions  granted  to  pupils  to  leave  the  room.  He 
should  pay  particular  attention  to  the  time  consumed 
in  each  absence  from  the  room.  It  is  rarely  necessary 
for  a  pupil  to  be  absent  from  the  room  longer  than  five 
minutes;  pupils  who  are  not  properly  supervised  in 
this  respect  are  likely  to  consume  from  ten  to  thirty 
minutes  in  absence  from  the  room.  Pupils  will  often 
leave  the  school  grounds,  or  will  ask  permission  to 
leave  the  room  in  order  to  converse  with  persons 
outside  of  the  school.  The  teacher  should  note  care- 
fully whether  the  same  pupil  asks  each  session  to  be 
excused  from  the  room;  if  this  is  true,  the  case  needs 
careful  attention  to  determine  whether  or  not  the 
request  is  due  to  necessity.  Some  pupils,  especially 
younger  pupils,  may  need  to  be  excused  very  frequently, 
and  in  some  instances  should  not  be  delayed  for  an 
instant.  The  teacher  should  see  that  proper  use  of 
the  toilets  is  made  during  the  intermissions  by  pupils 


54    PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

who  ask  frequent  permission  to  leave  the  room;  this 
may  reduce  very  materially  the  need  for  granting 
permissions  during  school  hours. 

Only  in  rare  instances  should  the  teacher  permit 
more  than  one  pupil  of  the  same  sex  to  leave  the  room 
at  the  same  time;  it  indicates  bad  management  to  see 
two  or  three  boys  or  girls  from  the  same  room  out  on 
permission  at  the  same  time. 

It  is  a  great  mistake  to  forbid  entirely  the  use  of 
the  toilets  during  school  hours;  the  teacher  should  bear 
in  mind  that  he  has  many  pupils  under  his  direction 
who  vary  in  their  physical  vigor,  and  that  the  same 
individual  varies  from  day  to  day  in  his  bodily  needs. 
To  deprive  one  of  the  use  of  the  toilet  when  there  is 
extreme  need  is  to  endanger  his  health.  It  is  equally 
unwise  to  punish  pupils  for  asking  permission  to  leave 
the  room  by  requiring  them  to  make  up  time  for  absence 
for  this  purpose.  The  thoughtful  teacher  will  study 
individual  needs  sufficiently  to  reduce  the  practice  to 
a  point  where  the  actual  needs  will  be  quite  fully  met. 

Use  of  the  Waste  Basket.  There  should  be  stated 
intervals,  usually  at  the  close  of  the  half-day  sessions, 
when  the  waste  basket  is  passed  systematically  along 
the  aisles  in  order  that  the  room  may  be  kept  tidy  and 
all  needless  paper  prevented  from  accumulating  in  the 
pupils'  desks.  Some  teachers  place  the  basket  near 
the  door  and  the  pupils  are  permitted  to  drop  their 
waste  paper  in  the  basket  as  they  pass  out.  It  is 
never  a  good  arrangement  to  permit  the  pupils  to 
leave  their  seats  to  drop  paper  in  the  basket  when 


DISCIPLINE  IN  THE  ROOM  55 

they  so  desire.  This  evil  in  some  schools  is  very  pro- 
nounced; it  results  in  an  almost  constant  stream  of 
pupils  from  their  seats  to  the  basket  and  back,  with 
much  confusion  and  waste  of  time. 

Only  One  Pupil  to  a  Seat.  No  little  annoyance 
results  in  some  schools  by  the  practice  of  permitting 
two  pupils  to  study  together  in  the  same  seat.  The 
reason  for  this  is  usually  due  to  the  failure  of  a  few 
pupils  to  be  supplied  with  books,  or  to  the  absence  of 
lessons  in  the  books  they  possess.  This  combination 
of  pupils  usually  results  in  keeping  both  pupils  from 
making  proper  preparation  of  the  lesson;  pupils  cannot 
study  together  to  advantage,  even  if  they  were  dis- 
posed to  spend  all  of  their  time  on  the  lesson,  which 
they  rarely  are.  Pupils  will  often  be  found,  where 
this  practice  is  in  vogue,  requesting  permission  to 
study  with  a  classmate  when  his  own  book  contains 
the  lesson.  The  pupil  who  supplies  himself  with  books 
for  his  work  should  not  be  imposed  upon  by  requesting 
him  to  share  their  use  with  other  pupils.  If  pupils  are 
without  books,  they  should  be  supplied  at  public 
expense  if  they  are  unable  to  purchase  them.  If  they 
are  able  to  purchase  them,  but  are  indifferent,  they 
should  be  allowed  to  study  from  the  books  of  other 
pupils  only  when  these  books  are  not  in  use  by  their 
owners. 

Sharpening  Pencils.  Borrowing  pencils  or  borrowing 
knives  to  sharpen  pencils  is  a  needless  waste  of  time  in 
school,  and  it  is  a  source  of  annoyance  to  the  school. 
This  evil  usually  results  in  having  one  or  more  pupils 


56  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

at  a  time  standing  before  the  waste  basket  sharpening 
pencils.  The  teacher  should  not  permit  a  pupil  to 
borrow  a  knife  or  a  pencil  from  a  member  of  the  room 
during  the  session.  The  teacher  should  have  a  supply 
of  one  or  two  dozen  pencils  to  be  used  in  emergencies. 
The  pupil  who  breaks  his  pencil,  or  who  is  for  other 
reasons  in  need  of  one,  may  be  permitted  to  step  to  the 
teacher's  desk,  leave  his  name  on  a  slip  of  paper,  and 
take  a  pencil.  He  should  return  the  pencil  promptly 
at  the  close  of  the  session. 

No  Communication  without  Permission.  Unre- 
stricted communication  is  the  origin  of  a  large  amount 
of  disorder  in  the  schoolroom.  Some  teachers  are 
afraid  to  forbid  communication;  they  sanction  some; 
this  amount  increases  to  more;  the  expansion  continues 
until  each  pupil  communicates  every  few  minutes 
during  school  hours;  then  the  teacher  tries  to  reduce 
the  evil,  without  effect.  The  practice  leads  to  note- 
writing,  cartooning,  and  other  forms  of  amusement. 
The  teacher  will  find  it  comparatively  easy  to  deny 
the  permission  and  prevent  more  than  an  occasional 
violation,  much  easier  in  fact  than  it  is  to  regulate  the 
amount.  The  great  need  of  the  pupil  is  power  of  con- 
tinuous application  to  a  given  task;  the  best  thought 
of  a  pupil  on  a  topic  is  not  likely  to  result  the  first 
three  or  four  minutes  of  study;  if  he  stops  to  com- 
municate to  one  of  his  companions,  he  changes  his 
current  of  thought  from  his  task  to  other  things  so 
frequently  that  his  study  is  of  the  most  superficial 
character. 


DISCIPLINE  IN  THE  ROOM  57 

Communication  has  long  been  considered  impos- 
sible of  elimination  in  school:  some  say  there  never 
was  a  school  where  some  communication  did  not  exist; 
they  offer  this  as  a  reason  for  their  failure  to  pronounce 
against  it.  There  was  perhaps  never  a  community  in 
which  theft  and  murder  did  not  exist  some  time,  yet 
we  would  not  think  of  permitting  just  a  little  theft,  and 
just  a  little  murder  to  avoid  making  a  law  that  might 
be  broken. 

There  are  many  schools  in  which  there  is  no  visible 
disturbance  from  communication  at  any  time  school  is 
in  session;  the  teacher  has  a  requirement  which  all 
pupils  thoroughly  understand;  the  teacher  very  seldom 
speaks  to  any  pupil  regarding  communication  because 
the  line  is  definitely  drawn  and  is  strictly  respected. 

If  a  school  has  the  habit  of  communicating,  it  is  not 
easily  broken,  yet  it  is  not  impossible  to  do  so.  A 
faithful  and  systematic  checking  of  pupils  who  engage 
in  the  practice,  followed  up  by  punishment  of  habitual 
offenders,  will  soon  change  the  tendency  into  applica- 
tion to  the  work  of  the  school. 

A  school  may  be  transformed  in  a  few  weeks  from 
concentrated  study  to  wholesale  communication  by  a 
teacher  who  is  indifferent  to  communication  in  his 
room.  One  frequently  sees  a  school  of  industrious  and 
orderly  pupils  pass  from  a  room  at  the  close  of  the 
year  to  the  next  room,  where  the  teacher  is  lax  in 
control.  The  first  month  of  school  there  is  very  little 
communication  to  be  seen  in  the  room;  but  the  close 
observer  will  soon  notice  the  evil  of  whispering  gradu- 


58  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

ally  creeping  in;  at  first  it  seems  and  is  quite  harmless, 
but  day  by  day  it  grows  until  the  time  between  study 
and  communication  is  quite  evenly  divided.  The 
pupils  the  first  month  followed  the  inertia  of  the  pre- 
ceding year.  A  pupil  who  was  asked  to  explain  the 
reason  for  the  change  from  order  to  disorder  stated 
the  case  accurately  thus,  "We  do  just  a  little  at  first; 
if  nothing  is  said,  we  do  just  a  little  more  next  time, 
and  a  little  more  the  next  time,  until  we  find  out  how 
much  the  teacher  will  let  us  do." 

The  teacher  needs  to  be  keenly  sensitive  to  the 
conduct  habits  being  formed  in  the  school;  the  teacher 
who  is  perfectly  unaffected  by  idleness  of  pupils  and 
misconduct  as  it  is  exhibited  before  him  repeatedly, 
lacks  the  most  fundamental  requirements  for  strength 
in  discipline.  The  teacher  should  be  so  constructed 
that  it  is  impossible  for  him  to  live  in  an  atmosphere 
of  disorder. 

Leaving  the  Room  without  Supervision.  The 
teacher  may  add  greatly  to  the  tendency  to  disorder  by 
frequently  leaving  the  room  without  any  one  in  charge; 
it  is  very  seldom  that  there  are  not  gross  violations 
of  discipline  in  the  absence  of  the  teacher.  The  moral 
effects  of  these  breaches  of  discipline  are  extremely  bad; 
they  breed  contempt  for  the  regulations  of  the  teacher, 
and  they  create  a  strong  desire  to  violate  requirements 
in  the  presence  of  the  teacher.  It  should  rarely  be 
necessary  for  the  teacher  to  leave  his  room  during  a 
session;  when  such  becomes  necessary,  he  should  if 
possible  place  some  one  in  charge.  The  teacher  who 


DISCIPLINE  IN  THE  ROOM  59 

finds  the  question  of  discipline  something  of  a  problem 
in  his  work  should  take  every  precaution  to  guard 
against  contributing  to  the  difficulties  of  the  problem. 

There  are  some  teachers  who  are  unusually  strong 
in  their  control  over  their  pupils;  these  teachers  are 
able  at  times  to  leave  their  rooms  for  several  minutes 
without  the  slightest  manifestation  of  disorder;  if 
there  are  serious  breaches  in  discipline,  they  are 
usually  promptly  informed.  Such  teachers  are  by  no 
means  numerous,  and  the  practice  should  not  be 
indulged  in  by  most  teachers  until  they  have  demon- 
strated sufficiently  that  they  should  be  ranked  with 
this  superior  group. 

Influence  of  the  Substitute.  The  substitute  teacher 
should  be  strong  in  control.  It  very  often  happens 
that  incompetent  persons  are  put  in  charge  of  the 
school  when  the  regular  teacher  is  called  away  from 
her  duties.  It  is  thought  that  any  person,  regardless 
of  immaturity,  scholarship,  or  lack  of  experience,  is 
sufficient  for  a  few  days.  Good  habits  of  the  pupils 
are  broken  in  this  brief  interval,  and  the  resulting  evils 
continue  for  many  days  after  the  return  of  the  regular 
teacher.  It  is  economy  from  every  point  of  view  to 
dismiss  a  room  in  the  absence  of  the  regular  teacher, 
unless  a  competent  substitute  may  be  had. 

Some  Common  but  Bad  Practices  of  Teachers. 
Everything  which  diverts  the  attention  of  the  school 
contributes  to  its  disorder;  this  is  just  as  true  of  the 
things  the  teacher  does  as  it  is  of  the  things  the  pupils 
do.  The  teacher  of  necessity  occupies  a  position  at 


60  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

one  end  of  the  room;  this  removes  him  from  close 
proximity  to  many  pupils.  Pupils  who  raise  their 
hands  should  never  be  permitted  to  call  out  their 
requests  over  the  heads  of  the  other  pupils  to  the 
teacher;  and  the  teacher  should  never  call  back 
answers  or  requests  to  individual  pupils.  The  observer 
often  sees  practices  similar  to  the  following:  A  pupil 
located  in  the  rear  of  the  room  or  sitting  in  the  midst 
of  the  school  raises  his  hand;  the  teacher  calls  out, 
"Well,  John,  what  is  it?"  "Can't  pronounce  this  word." 
"Spell  it."  "P-h-e-n-o-m-e-n-o-n."  "Phenomenon. 
Don't  you  know  what  a  phenomenon'  is?"  The 
teacher  then  proceeds  to  explain  to  the  pupil  at 
long  range  while  the  entire  school  suspends  operations 
until  the  performance  is  over.  The  teacher  should 
pass  back  quietly  to  the  pupil's  desk  or  have  him  in 
response  to  an  inaudible  signal  come  to  him;  all 
answers  and  questions  between  the  teacher  and  the 
pupil  should  be  in  whispers  or  in  a  low  tone  of  voice. 
In  the  former  method  of  procedure  the  entire  room 
receives  a  shock  and  agitation  which  is  comparable  to 
the  effect  produced  by  throwing  a  heavy  stone  into  a 
placid  pond.  Continuous  and  quiet  occupation  of  the 
pupils  in  study  relieves  the  teacher  of  much  care  in 
discipline ;  this  occupation  is  capable  of  formation  under 
proper  conditions,  but  the  frequent  interruption  of 
attention  in  study  makes  this  habit  of  study  very 
difficult  of  formation. 

The  teacher  should  avoid  all  practices  which  tend 
to  throw  his  school  into  confusion  and  thus  break  the 


DISCIPLINE  IN  THE  ROOM  61 

continuity  of  thought  of  the  pupils.  Many  teachers 
do  this  unconsciously  by  making  foolish  remarks  which 
convulse  the  school  in  laughter;  sometimes  the  teacher 
accomplishes  it  by  turning  the  answers  of  the  pupils 
to  absurdities  or  to  ridicule,  much  to  the  embarrass- 
ment of  the  pupil.  The  pupils  soon  become  accus- 
tomed to  these  amusing  turns  and  keep  their  ears 
on  the  alert  for  them.  They  thus  form  the  habit  of 
study  with  a  divided  mental  energy. 

This  evil  sometimes  takes  the  form  of  the  "question 
box."  At  this  time  the  teacher  permits  the  pupils  to 
drop  foolish  questions  in  a  box  to  be  read  and  answered 
later.  These  never  serve  any  useful  purpose,  and  their 
influence  on  the  school  is  bad.  They  lower  the  dignity 
of  the  school,  and  they  stimulate  frivolity  and  insincere 
thought  on  the  part  of  the  pupils,  which,  with  many 
pupils,  is  already  abnormally  developed. 

The  Manner  of  the  Teacher.  A  school  in  a  large 
measure  is  a  reflection  of  the  teacher.  For  this  reason 
the  teacher  should  cultivate  a  quiet  manner  in  all 
things.  "A  quiet  teacher  makes  a  quiet  school"  is  a 
true  saying.  The  movements  of  the  teacher  about 
the  room  should  be  quiet;  his  handling  of  books,  coal, 
erasers,  maps,  and  other  materials  should  be  such  as  to 
produce  little  confusion.  The  same  spirit  should  be 
cultivated  in  the  pupils.  A  pupil  who  leaves  the  room 
should  do  so  in  a  manner  to  escape  the  attention  of  the 
other  pupils;  it  is  likely  to  happen,  unless  the  teacher 
gives  it  his  attention,  that  a  pupil  will  walk  heavily  from 
his  seat  to  the  door,  open  the  door  rudely,  and  close  it 


62  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

with  a  slam.  The  same  process  may  be  repeated  on 
his  return.  A  little  attention  to  this  matter  will  soon 
correct  the  difficulty.  The  teacher  may  properly  ask 
the  pupil  to  return  to  his  seat  and  pass  quietly  over 
the  floor;  he  should  be  asked  to  repeat  the  request 
until  he  can  pass  out  without  disturbance.  A  pupil 
who  has  particular  trouble  in  reducing  the  noise 
incident  to  his  leaving  the  room  should  be  asked  to 
remain  at  his  seat  and  forego  the  privilege.  This  will 
be  found  to  assist  the  offender  greatly  in  the  reduction 
of  confusion  the  next  time  his  request  is  granted  to 
leave  the  room. 

The  same  spirit  should  be  manifested  in  all  other 
movements  of  the  pupils  about  the  room.  It  should 
be  required  of  all  persons  visiting  the  school.  Persons 
who  visit  the  school  and  who  persist  in  conversation 
should  be  politely  asked  to  desist,  and  in  case  of  failure 
should  be  requested  and  even  forced  if  necessary  to 
leave  the  school.  These  considerations  are  large 
elements  in  building  up  a  wholesome  atmosphere  in 
the  school,  and  they  should  receive  the  most  careful 
attention  of  the  teacher. 

Preparation  for  the  Day's  Work.  All  preparations 
for  the  work  of  the  day  should  be  made  before  school 
calls;  it  is  too  late  after  the  bell  rings  and  pupils  are  in 
their  seats,  to  begin  placing  work  on  the  board,  dis- 
tributing crayon  and  erasers,  adjusting  the  shades  and 
windows,  poking  the  fire,  and  doing  other  things  which 
could  be  done  before  the  school  is  called.  The  teacher 
should  be  at  the  school  building  long  enough  before 


DISCIPLINE  IN  THE  ROOM  63 

school  is  called  to  have  all  details  of  the  work  of  the 
day  arranged,  long  enough  before  the  pupils  arrive  that 
he  may  give  them  his  full  attention  when  it  is  needed. 

The  teacher  should  not  attempt  to  prepare  lessons, 
grade  papers,  or  engage  in  other  tasks  which  draw 
his  attention  from  his  school.  His  lessons  for  the 
day  should  be  so  well  prepared  that  he  can  be  largely 
free  from  his  texts  while  conducting  his  recitations; 
this  will  enable  him  to  supervise  his  room  effectively  at 
all  times.  The  teacher  should  avoid  turning  his  back 
to  his  school  long  at  a  time;  this  invites  disorder  from 
pupils  who  need  careful  direction  to  cultivate  in  them 
the  habit  of  study. 

Providing  Definite  Work.  The  pupils  should  be 
provided  with  definite  tasks  to  perform;  these  tasks 
should  be  sufficient  to  require  the  full  allotted  time  for 
study.  The  teacher  should  be  sure  the  pupils  know 
how  to  perform  the  assigned  task  without  assistance 
from  him  or  other  pupils.  All  assigned  lessons  should 
be  called  for,  and  the  pupils  held  strictly  responsible 
for  the  proper  preparation  of  them.  Pupils  who  do 
not  perform  the  required  task  should  be  required  to 
make  the  preparation  as  requested  outside  of  school, 
especially  if  the  teacher  has  reason  to  believe  the 
entire  time  for  study  was  not  faithfully  applied  to  the 
task. 

Make  the  Pupils  Comfortable.  There  are  many 
conditions  about  a  schoolroom  which  affect  the  conduct 
of  the  pupils  indirectly.  These  are  largely  under  the 
control  of  the  teacher.  The  teacher  should  see  that 


64  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

all  of  the  pupils  are  seated  in  seats  of  proper  height. 
It  should  be  possible  for  every  pupil  to  touch  the  floor 
with  his  feet  while  sitting  in  touch  with  the  lower  part 
of  the  back  of  his  seat;  if  this  is  not  possible,  the  seat 
should  be  changed  or  a  sufficient  support  placed  on 
the  floor  upon  which  the  pupil  may  rest  his  feet.  The 
desk  should  not  be  too  high  nor  arranged  too  near  the 
adjacent  desk,  nor  placed  in  any  position  which 
requires  the  pupil  to  assume  a  cramped  position. 

The  position  of  the  pupils  as  regards  the  light  should 
receive  attention.  No  pupil  should  be  placed  in  a 
schoolroom  so  as  to  face  a  light.  It  is  very  easy  to 
injure  the  pupil's  eyes  permanently  in  this  manner. 
The  injury  is  done  in  so  subtle  a  manner  that  the  pupil 
himself  may  not  be  conscious  of  it. 

The  temperature  of  the  schoolroom  should  always 
be  a  vital  concern  of  the  teacher.  Every  schoolroom 
should  be  equipped  with  a  thermometer.  The 
teacher  should  be  absolutely  certain  that  the  ther- 
mometer registers  correctly — -cheap  thermometers 
rarely  register  within  five  degrees  of  the  correct  tem- 
perature. The  teacher  should  test  his  thermometer  at 
least  once  each  year.  A  good  way  to  do  this  is  to 
place  the  bulb  of  the  thermometer  in  a  mixture  of  ice 
and  water  and  leave  it  for  fifteen  minutes;  the  ther- 
mometer, if  correct,  will  register  thirty-two  degrees 
Fahrenheit.  The  room  should  be  kept  at  seventy 
degrees  as  nearly  as  possible.  The  teacher  should 
have  regular  times  at  which  he  examines  the  tempera- 
ture of  his  room;  if  he  does  this,  he  will  soon  become 


DISCIPLINE  IN  THE  ROOM  65 

sensitive  to  correct  temperature  for  the  room  and  will 
usually  detect  serious  variations  in  temperature.  A 
large  majority  of  schoolrooms  are  overheated;  many 
teachers  seem  unconcerned  even  if  the  temperature 
reaches  eighty  or  eighty-five  degrees.  Temperatures 
which  are  five  or  ten  degrees  above  or  below  seventy 
affect  not  only  the  amount  of  work  pupils  may  do  in 
a  given  time,  but  it  affects  their  discipline. 

The  question  of  ventilation  is  of  importance  from 
the  standpoint  of  discipline,  sanitation,  and  efficient 
work.  There  are  very  few  systems  which  are  satis- 
factory as  found  in  villages  and  small  cities.  The 
teacher  must  open  the  windows  if  proper  ventilation 
is  secured.  In  ventilating  a  room  through  the  windows 
the  teacher  should  never  do  so  by  merely  lowering  the 
windows  at  the  top.  Every  window  may  be  drawn 
several  inches  at  the  top  and  still  the  air  may  have  a 
poor  circulation  in  the  room.  It  is  much  better  to 
lower  one  or  two  windows  from  the  top  and  raise  the 
same  number  at  the  bottom  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
room,  if  possible.  This  arrangement  will  permit  the 
air  to  circulate  through  the  room,  and  will  usually 
supply  a  fair  amount  of  fresh  air.  If  the  teacher  will 
add  to  this  plan  a  window  board  for  each  window,  the 
danger  from  drafts  will  be  removed. 

Relaxation  Exercises.  The  teacher  of  primary 
and  intermediate  pupils  should  guard  against  fatigue 
by  introducing  relaxation  exercises.  At  certain  inter- 
vals and  at  all  other  times  when  fatigue  becomes 
evident  to  the  teacher,  the  pupils  should  be  asked  to 


66  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

lay  aside  their  work  for  marching,  drilling,  or  breathing 
exercises.  These  exercises  need  not  consume  more 
than  five  minutes  at  a  time;  they  will  amply  repay 
for  all  the  time  thus  employed. 

Prevention  of  Idleness.  The  teacher  must  supervise 
his  room  closely  during  the  study  periods  of  the  pupils. 
Most  teachers  must  do  this  at  the  time  another  class 
is  reciting,  but  the  teacher  may  soon  acquire  such  skill 
in  this  that  he  will  not  neglect  his  recitation  in  order 
to  supervise  the  pupils  who  are  preparing  other  lessons. 
The  teacher  should  insist  that  the  pupils  give  all  their 
time  to  study.  The  habit  of  concentrated  study  is 
worth  more  to  the  pupils  than  the  technical  knowledge 
they  gain  from  study.  A  fairly  accurate  estimate  of 
the  character  of  a  school  is  the  number  of  pupils  idle 
at  different  times  during  their  study  periods.  Idleness 
takes  the  form  of  lying  down  on  the  desk,  sliding  down 
in  the  seat,  whispering,  sleeping,  dreaming  without 
sleeping,  and  standing  at  the  desk.  The  teacher  has  a 
right  to  expect  that  his  pupils  apply  themselves  at  all 
times  during  the  preparation  period. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  advantage  is  secured  in  discipline  by  a  proper 
method  of  seating  the  pupils?    What  objection  is  there  to  allow- 
ing pupils  to  choose  their  own  seats?    How  should  the  teacher 
proceed  to  seat  properly  the  pupils  in  the  room? 

2.  What  liberties  should  be  granted  pupils  to  leaw  their 
regular  seats? 

3.  How  should  the  teacher  control  requests  to  leave  the 
room?    To  what  extent  should  these  requests  be  allowed  and  to 
what  extent  denied? 


DISCIPLINE  IN  THE  ROOM  67 

4.  In  what  manner  should  the  teacher  allow  pupils  to  use 
the  waste  basket?     State  some  improper  ways  in  which  the 
basket  is  often  used. 

5.  Why  is  it  inadvisable  to  allow  two  pupils  to  occupy  the 
same  seat  for  study?     How  should  this  request  be  controlled? 

6.  How  may  the  necessity  for  sharpening  pencils  during 
school  hours  be  controlled? 

7.  Explain  the  manner  hi  which  evils  arise  from  communica- 
tion in  the  schoolroom.     How  should  this  problem  be  met  by 
the  teacher?     How   may   the  practice  of  communication  be 
broken  after  it  is  once  established  in  the  school? 

8.  Show  the  effect  on  the  discipline  of  a  room,  of  leaving  it 
frequently  without  supervision.     Why  is  the  practice  of  leaving 
the  room  without  supervision  safe  for  a  few  unusual  teachers, 
but  unsafe  for  others? 

9.  Discuss  the  influence  of  the  substitute  on  the  problem  of 
discipline. 

10.  Explain  how  teachers  often  disturb  the  discipline  of  their 
rooms  by  bad  practices.     What  is  the  chief  value  of  a  long  period 
of  undisturbed  study  on  the  part  of  pupils? 

11.  In  what  sense  does,   "A  quiet  teacher  make  a  quiet 
school"?     Show  common  ways  in  which  teachers  are  unneces- 
sarily noisy  in  the  schoolroom. 

12.  How  may  careful  daily  preparation  assist  the  teacher  in 
his  solution  of  the  problem  of  discipline? 

13.  What  kind  of  "definite  work"  should  the  teacher  provide 
if  such  work  is  to  be  of  great  assistance  in  discipline? 

14.  State  the  different  ways  in  which  the  teacher  should 
attempt   to  make  his  pupils  comfortable  in  the  schoolroom. 
Explain  the  relation  of  comfort  to  discipline. 

15.  What  are  some  of  the  evidences  of  idleness  in  a  school? 
State  how  idleness  may  be  prevented  or  overcome. 


CHAPTER  V 
MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  CLASS 

THE  teacher  needs  a  system  where  pupils  are 
managed  in  groups.  Pupils  should  be  kept  under  the 
direction  of  the  teacher,  if  they  are  to  be  managed 
quickly  and  with  order.  It  is  well  to  have  the  same 
order  of  procedure  so  that  mechanical  details  may 
require  little  time  and  attention. 

Signals.  The  management  of  the  class  begins  with 
calling  the  recitation.  The  teacher  should  have  some 
simple  signal  for  directing  the  movements  of  the  class. 
If  classes  come  to  the  front  of  the  room  for  their 
recitation,  pupils  should  be  required  to  rise  in  unison, 
then  remain  at  the  seat  until  the  direction  is  given  to 
pass  to  the  recitation  seats;  the  pupils  should  remain 
standing  until  directed  to  sit.  Every  movement  should 
be  followed  by  every  pupil  immediately  after  the  signal 
is  given  by  the  teacher.  This  plan  will  insure  prompt 
and  orderly  movements  of  the  pupils  to  the  class. 
The  same  plan  should  be  followed  when  the  class 
returns  from  the  recitation  to  the  seats. 

The  form  of  signal  used  by  the  teacher  should  be 
such  as  to  attract  as  little  attention  as  possible.  The 
signal  should  be  a  quiet  one,  and  one  easily  manipu- 
lated. The  use  of  a  hand  bell  or  any  bell  is  objec- 
tionable; the  repeated  sounding  of  the  bell  disturbs 
the  quiet  of  the  room,  so  necessary  to  the  best  work. 

68 


MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  CLASS  69 

The  simple  commands  of  "stand,"  "pass,"  "sit,"  are 
good.  The  movements  may  be  directed  equally  well 
by  the  counts,  "one,"  "two,"  "three."  Some  teachers 
use  to  good  advantage  slight  motions  of  the  hands  to 
direct  the  movements  of  the  class. 

Sealing  of  the  Class.  Every  pupil  of  the  class 
should  have  his  seat  designated  by  the  teacher;  the 
pupil  should  use  this  seat  in  every  recitation  until 
it  is  changed  by  the  teacher.  The  teacher  should 
study  the  seating  of  his  classes  for  each  recitation  as 
carefully  as  he  studies  the  seating  of  the  pupils  in  the 
room.  There  are  some  particular  points  that  the 
teacher  should  consider  when  arranging  the  seating 
of  the  pupils  hi  the  class;  the  class  as  a  whole  should 
be  seated  compactly;  to  scatter  the  class  over  a  large 
area,  to  seat  the  pupils  in  one  or  two  rows  extending 
either  from  right  to  left  or  from  front  to  back  is  to 
weaken  the  attention  of  the  class  and  add  greatly  to 
the  difficulties  of  instruction.  Many  of  the  sugges- 
tions given  for  seating  the  room  should  be  followed  in 
seating  the  class.  Pupils  of  weak  attention  should  be 
seated  as  far  to  the  front  as  possible  and  should  be 
placed  near  pupils  of  strong  attention. 

Pupils  who  have  slight  impairment  of  sight  or 
hearing  should  have  special  seating  that  no  part  of 
the  recitation  may  be  lost  from  these  defects.  When 
the  class  is  permanently  seated,  it  should  be  possible 
for  each  member  to  see  the  teacher  and  so  far  as 
possible  see  and  hear  the  other  pupils  when  they 
recite. 


70  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

Where  pupils  recite  at  the  regular  seats,  it  is  often 
advisable  to  assign  special  seats  to  be  occupied  during 
the  recitation  period  by  some  or  all  of  the  pupils.  The 
more  widely  the  pupils  are  separated  in  the  room  the 
better  for  study,  but  the  more  compactly  they  are 
seated  the  better  for  class  work. 

If  new  seats  are  assigned  for  the  class  work,  the 
changes  for  the  class  period  may  be  directed  in  the 
same  way  the  teacher  would  call  the  class,  but  if  the 
class  is  large,  the  movements  may  be  more  con- 
veniently directed  by  designating  the  changes  by  rows, 
as,  "Rows  1  and  2,  pass";  "Rows  3  and  4,  pass." 
This  plan  will  prevent  all  confusion  incident  to  the 
change  of  pupils  from  one  row  to  another,  and  from 
changes  from  rear  to  front  seats,  or  vice  versa. 

Position  of  the  Teacher  with  Reference  to  the  Class. 
The  teacher  should  guard  carefully  his  position  with 
reference  to  the  class.  He  should  keep  before  the 
class  during  the  recitation;  a  position  in  the  rear  or  in 
the  midst  of  the  class,  or  at  either  side  places  the 
teacher  and  the  class  at  a  great  disadvantage.  It 
cultivates  the  habit  in  pupils  of  turning  around  in  the 
seats  and  thus  adds  greatly  to  inattention.  The 
teacher  should  be  as  near  the  class  as  possible  to 
prevent  pupils  in  the  front  seats  from  holding  their 
heads  in  an  unnatural  position  in  order  to  look  the 
teacher  in  the  face. 

Whether  the  teacher  should  stand  or  sit  while 
hearing  the  recitation  must  be  governed  largely  by  the 
size  of  the  class,  the  character  of  the  pupils,  and 


MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  CLASS  71 

the  strength  of  the  teacher  in  control.  The  teacher 
usually  commands  better  attention  when  standing; 
this  is  tiresome,  however,  and  difficult  to  practice  by 
all  teachers  all  the  time.  A  teacher  may  become 
accustomed  to  hearing  the  recitation  while  sitting,  and 
may  hold  interest  quite  as  well  as  when  standing. 

Position  of  Pupils  Reciting.  It  is  usually  best, 
especially  with  small  children,  to  have  them  stand 
when  reciting;  it  is  possible,  however,  for  the  teacher 
to  overemphasize  this  formal  side  of  the  recitation. 
Where  brief  answers  to  questions  are  desired,  as  in 
the  case  of  rapid  drills,  it  may  be  best  to  have  pupils 
remain  seated.  In  recitations  involving  a  long  narra- 
tive, as  in  history,  story  reproduction,  and  geography,  it 
is  often  a  good  plan  to  have  pupils  come  forward  and 
face  the  class  in  giving  the  recitation.  This  form  of 
recitation  is  a  great  waste  of  time  where  the  recita- 
tions are  short;  to  have  a  pupil  rise  from  his  seat  and 
walk  to  the  front  of  the  room,  face  the  class  and  state 
that  2  and  2  are  4,  is  a  great  absurdity.  The  time 
consumed  in  passing  to  and  from  the  seat  should  be 
put  to  a  better  use. 

Passing  Supplies.  The  teacher  should  have  a 
definite  system  of  passing  all  papers  and  other  supplies 
to  the  pupils  in  the  recitation.  The  chief  requirements 
of  a  system  are  speed  and  lack  of  confusion.  A  great 
amount  of  time  may  be  lost  in  a  school  from  mere 
lack  of  a  proper  system  in  distributing  materials.  A 
good  way  to  pass  paper  to  each  member  of  a  class  is  to 
give  each  pupil  in  the  front  seat  of  each  row  several 


72  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE,  SCHOOL 

sheets  and  have  them  pass  at  a  given  signal  up  the 
aisles  and  lay  a  sheet  on  the  desk  of  each  pupil. 
Papers  may  be  collected  in  a  similar  way.  To  have 
the  pupils  pass  a  bunch  of  paper  from  desk  to  desk 
or'  to  hand  papers  collected  from  one  pupil  to  another 
along  the  rows  is  slow,  and  it  is  usually  attended  with 
confusion. 

The  passing  of  pencils  may  be  quickly  accom- 
plished by  providing  small  paper  boxes — one  for  each 
aisle;  by  placing  the  pencils  through  the  holes  made  in 
the  cover,  and  by  arranging  the  pencils  in  the  box  in 
the  order  in  which  the  pupils  sit  in  the  row,  pencils 
may  be  distributed  and  collected  so  that  every  pupil 
may  obtain  his  own  pencil  each  day  almost  as  quickly 
as  a  pupil  may  pass  up  or  down  the  aisle. 

Showing  Pictures  and  Illustrations.  It  is  often 
desirable  to  show  each  member  of  the  class  a  picture 
or  other  object;  in  order  to  avoid  confusion  the  teacher 
must  have  a  plan  suited  to  the  size  of  the  pupils  and 
the  number  in  the  class.  It  may  be  impossible  for  all 
to  see  the  object  at  the  same  time;  in  this  event  the 
teacher  should  call  the  pupils  in  small  groups  to  his 
side  and  show  the  illustration;  or,  he  may  pass  slowly 
along  the  aisles  and  have  the  pupils  view  the  illustra- 
tion while  sitting  in  their  seats.  It  is  not  a  good  plan 
usually  to  permit  the  pupils  to  pass  the  material  to  be 
shown  along  from  one  to  another.  This  plan  is  very 
distracting  to  those  who  are  expected  to  give  attention 
to  another  part  of  the  recitation.  If  the  pupils  are 
permitted  to  crowd  around  the  teacher  at  the  same 


MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  CLASS  73 

time,  there  is  likely  to  be  confusion,  and  many  pupils 
will  be  prevented  from  obtaining  a  good  view. 

Passing  Classes  to  the  Board.  Much  confusion 
and  loss  of  time  frequently  results  in  passing  pupils 
from  their  class  seats  to  the  board.  Pupils  should  be 
assigned  definite  places  to  work  at  the  board;  they 
should  occupy  these  places  each  time  until  they  are 
changed  by  the  teacher.  When  the  teacher  wishes 
the  pupils  to  pass  to  the  board,  he  should  direct  them 
in  a  manner  similar  to  calling  the  pupils  to  the  class; 
simply  to  say,  "Pass  to  the  board,"  produces  hurrying 
and  great  irregularity  in  arriving  hi  position  for  work 
at  the  board.  Where  work  is  to  be  assigned  for  the 
pupils  to  place  on  the  board,  the  pupils  should  be  given 
at  their  seats  the  assignment  they  are  expected  to 
place  on  the  board.  If  crayon  is  to  be  distributed,  the 
pupils  should  pass  in  order  by  the  box  of  crayon  and 
each  supply  himself  as  he  passes  to  the  board.  Each 
pupil  can  in  the  same  manner  return  his  crayon  to  the 
box  as  he  returns  to  his  seat.  It  is  usually  a  good 
plan  to  keep  the  crayon  gathered  when  not  in  use;  it 
prevents  much  waste  and  tramping  of  crayon  on  the 
floor,  besides,  it  prevents  almost  entirely  the  tendency 
to  mark  the  school  furniture  and  other  property 
outside  of  school  hours. 

Answering  without  Permission.  One  of  the  most 
distracting  practices  is  that  of  permitting  pupils  to 
answer  in  the  recitation  without  permission.  No 
pupil  should  be  permitted  to  ask  a  question,  make  a 
comment  on  a  recitation,  or  answer  a  question  until 


74    PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

he  has  been  given  permission  to  do  so;  there  is  no 
possible  way  of  doing  systematic  work  with  a  class 
where  unrestrained  answering  is  permitted.  The  teacher 
is  always  responsible  for  this  habit  when  it  exists.  The 
evil  is  usually  developed  by  the  teacher's  method  of 
questioning;  it  will  usually  be  found  that  teachers  hav- 
ing this  condition  ask  general  questions  frequently,  and 
wait  for  pupils  to  answer  promiscuously.  Pupils  should 
never  be  permitted  to  answer  in  this  manner;  the  teacher 
should  designate  some  pupil  to  answer  after  the  ques- 
tion is  given,  and  require  all  others  to  wait  until  the 
pupil  selected  has  given  his  response.  Pupils  who  are 
already  confirmed  in  the  habit  may  be  broken  of  it  if 
the  teacher  is  careful  in  avoiding  the  general  question 
and  will  insist  upon  pupils  raising  hands  and  waiting 
to  be  designated  before  reciting.  Much  of  the  class 
disorder  and  much  general  confusion  as  well  as  poor 
teaching  have  their  origin  in  this  undirected  talking  on 
the  part  of  pupils  in  the  recitation.  The  beginning 
teacher  is  almost  universally  afflicted  with  this  great 
nuisance. 

Remove  Distracting  Stimuli.  The  teacher  should 
have  the  very  closest  attention  from  his  pupils  during 
the  recitation.  In  order  to  do  this  he  must  see  that 
nothing  distracts  their  attention  from  the  work  of  the 
recitation.  All  books  should  be  closed  before  the 
recitation  starts;  it  is  surprising  how  often  this  simple 
but  great  necessity  is  neglected.  No  pupil  can  give 
attention  to  the  general  work  of  the  class  who  is 
dividing  his  time  between  his  text  and  the  subject- 


MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  CLASS  75 

matter  treated  in  the  recitation.  A  recitation  which 
is  properly  conducted  should  yield  to  every  pupil  of 
the  class  more  than  he  could  accomplish  by  studying 
the  text  in  the  recitation;  there  are  so  many  angles 
to  every  topic  under  consideration  in  the  recitation, 
and  no  pupil  can  benefit  by  them  unless  he  follows 
the  developments  of  the  recitation.  In  many  instances 
it  is  well  to  have  all  textbooks  left  at  the  seats;  this 
requires  all  pupils  to  depend  on  their  own  resources 
for  the  recitation. 

When  pupils  recite  in  the  regular  seats,  they  should 
have  their  desks  clear  of  all  books,  papers,  and  pencils, 
which  are  likely  to  cause  inattention. 

When  the  recitation  begins,  the  teacher  should 
not  permit  pupils  to  interrupt  him  with  questions 
concerning  their  work;  he  should  not  permit  mes- 
sengers from  other  rooms  to  enter  and  make  announce- 
ments; he  should  not  permit  work  to  be  written  on 
the  board  before  the  class,  whether  it  is  for  the  class 
being  instructed  or  for  other  pupils,  or  whether  the 
work  is  being  put  on  by  a  pupil  or  some  teacher.  All 
of  these  practices  tend  to  break  down  the  efficiency  of 
the  work  done  in  the  recitation.  A  mixture  of  oral 
and  written  work  during  the  recitation  is  objectionable 
for  this  reason;  where  half  of  the  class  are  given 
written  work  and  the  others  are  questioned  orally, 
there  is  seldom  strong  work  done  by  either  division. 

The  teacher  should  not  permit  noise  or  sights  in 
the  hall  to  detract  from  his  recitation;  the  door  leading 
into  the  hall  should  be  kept  closed.  It  is  usually 


76  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

better  to  have  an  opaque  glass  in  the  door  if  a  glass  is 
used  in  the  door;  this  will  prevent  the  attention  of 
pupils  from  being  drawn  to  other  pupils  or  persons 
who  occasionally  pass  through  the  hall. 

Plan  and  Preparation  of  the  Teacher.  The  recita- 
tion should  move  briskly  and  toward  a  definite  goal; 
this  is  impossible  unless  the  teacher  is  thoroughly 
prepared  on  the  lesson;  he  should  know  every 
point  of  the  lesson  so  that  he  could  recite  every  part 
of  the  lesson  better  than  he  expects  the  pupils  to  do 
it. 

He  should  have  analyzed  the  content  of  the  lesson 
sufficiently  to  see  the  central  idea  in  it;  he  should 
have  this  consciously  in  mind  before  he  goes  before  the 
class.  The  recitation  in  most  instances  should  require 
narration  of  facts  and  the  discussions  of  principles. 
There  is  little  profit  or  purpose  in  a  recitation  which 
consists  of  short  questions  and  one-sentence  answers. 
A  question  should  have  something  centered  about  it. 
A  good  question  stimulates  thought  and  commands 
attention.  A  series  of  short  unrelated  questions  renders 
attention  unnecessary  to  all  pupils  except  the  one 
called  on  to  recite;  the  next  question  is  a  new  topic 
and  may  be  recited  with  accuracy  whether  or  not  a 
word  of  the  preceding  recitation  has  been  heard.  The 
teacher  may  frequently  make  good  use  of  the  general 
thought  question.  The  attention  of  pupils  not  called 
on  tends  to  weaken  after  a  few  minutes;  the  skillful 
teacher  will  at  such  times  throw  in  a  general  question 
for  the  class  to  study  an  instant;  naturally  the  atten- 


MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  CLASS  77 

tion  is  brightened  because  all  the  pupils  are  desirous  of 
seeing  if  the  question  is  answered  correctly. 

Preparation  of  the  Pupils.  Pupils  who  are  familiar 
with  the  lesson  are  interested  in  the  recitation,  and 
they  are  pleased  to  recite;  pupils  who  do  not  know 
the  lesson  are  naturally  quite  likely  to  be  uninterested 
and  inattentive.  The  efficiency  of  the  teacher  in  in- 
struction determines  very  largely  the  preparation  of 
the  pupils.  The  teacher  should  look  well  to  his  mode 
of  assignment  as  suggested  in  another  chapter,  and  he 
should  see  that  the  study  time  of  the  pupils  is  properly 
guarded  by  effective  management  of  the  room  as 
suggested  in  the  previous  chapter. 

The  pupils  should  be  given  the  right  of  way  to 
recite  in  the  recitation;  they  get  in  reciting  much 
benefit  that  is  impossible  otherwise.  It  is  very  un- 
profitable and  disgusting  to  pupils  to  prepare  a  lesson 
and  come  to  the  recitation  to  hear  the  teacher  recite 
it.  It  is  an  easy  matter  for  the  teacher  to  talk  too 
much  in  the  recitation.  The  temptation  is  very 
strong  for  the  teacher  to  supply  what  the  pupil  has 
omitted  in  his  recitation  on  a  topic;  this  practice  leads 
to  loose  preparation  on  the  part  of  the  pupils;  soon 
the  pupil  makes  a  short  response  to  the  question,  and 
then  follows  a  complete  account  by  the  teacher,  who 
receives  the  benefit  of  answering  rather  than  the  pupils. 

The  preparation  of  the  pupils  is  greatly  affected  by 
the  habits  of  the  teacher  respecting  the  assignment. 
When  an  assignment  is  made,  the  teacher  should 
make  it  a  daily  practice  of  calling  for  it  in  every 


78     PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

detail.  If  the  pupils  discover  that  many  points  of 
the  lesson  are  not  seriously  considered  by  the 
teacher,  they  become  indifferent  and  careless  in 
their  preparation;  this  lack  of  preparation  and 
unfamiliarity  induces  loose  attention  and  indifference 
in  the  class. 

Method  of  Conducting  the  Recitation.  The  recita- 
tion should  be  so  conducted  that  attention  is  neces- 
sary, and  in  such  a  manner  that  every  pupil  will 
experience  a  current  of  thought  similar  to  that 
of  the  pupil  actually  reciting.  The  topic  involved 
in  the  recitation  should  be  extensive  enough  that  one 
pupil  may  continue  the  recitation  where  another  has 
left  off. 

The  teacher  may  use  this  plan  to  advantage  in 
arithmetic:  he  may  call  on  a  pupil  to  begin  an  explana- 
tion, but  require  another  to  take  it  up  when  desig- 
nated to  do  so,  and  another,  and  so  on  until  the 
problem  is  finished.  This  plan  requires  every  pupil  to 
explain  to  himself  every  problem  used  in  the  class; 
thus,  the  benefit  derived  by  each  pupil  is  the  same  as 
if  each  had  engaged  in  the  recitation  of  every  problem. 
The  same  process  may  be  followed  in  algebra,  geometry, 
history,  geography,  and  many  other  studies,  in  more 
or  less  modified  form. 

Very  long  recitations  on  the  part  of  one  pupil  are 
conducive  to  inattention  and  unrest  in  the  class;  it  is 
better  to  repeat  the  class  list,  if  necessary,  in  the 
recitation  rather  than  make  the  recitations  of  indi- 
vidual pupils  long 


MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  CLASS  79 

A  pupil  who  is  reciting  should  not  be  repeatedly 
interrupted  by  the  teacher;  the  teacher  should  wait 
until  the  pupil  is  through;  if  he  has  criticism  to  make, 
that  is  the  proper  time. 

It  is  impossible  for  a  pupil  to  do  consecutive  think- 
ing if  his  current  of  thought  is  interrupted  every  ten 
seconds  by  an  objection  or  a  snarl  from  the  teacher 
or  some  member  of  the  class. 

It  is  an  excellent  attainment  for  one  to  acquire  the 
power  to  stand  upon  his  feet  and  give  a  clear  exposi- 
tion of  facts  logically  related  to  a  topic;  this  ability  is 
worth  more  than  the  mere  facts  of  an  individual  topic. 
This  ability  grows  gradually  as  one  is  thrown  upon 
his  own  resources  of  thought. 

The  teacher  should  avoid  giving  too  much  atten- 
tion— rather  exclusive  attention — to  the  pupil  reciting. 
The  other  pupils  should  never  feel  that  responsibility 
of  the  recitation  at  any  time  has  been  shifted  to  one 
pupil.  This  is  likely  to  be  the  case  where  the  teacher 
turns  his  attention  to  a  single  pupil  in  a  conspicuous 
manner.  Often  the  teacher  strives  too  long  in  the 
general  recitation  to  get  a  pupil  to  comprehend  a 
difficult  point;  the  teacher  explains,  he  insists,  he  piles 
illustration  upon  illustration  until  the  pupil  becomes 
confused  and  bewildered;  the  pupil  becomes  more  and 
more  the  center  of  attraction,  and  his  embarrassment 
increases  along  with  the  impatience  of  the  teacher, 
which  is  increased  by  the  growing  restlessness  of  the 
other  members  of  the  class,  or  perhaps,  by  disorder  in 
the  room;  the  teacher  sternly  commands,  "Now  you 


80  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

think,"  and  "Don't  you  answer  that  way  again,"  "I'm 
going  to  put  you  back  in  the  next  grade,  if  you  don't 
do  better."  The  teacher  still  pursues  the  course,  which 
has  for  several  minutes  been  a  lost  battle,  until  the 
pupil  breaks  into  tears,  yet  the  teacher  tries  even 
then  to  "make  it  clear."  When  a  pupil  is  becoming 
confused,  when  the  teacher  is  losing  patience,  when 
the  class  is  becoming  restless — yea,  before  these  stages 
in  the  game  are  reached — it  is  time  to  excuse  the 
pupil  and  go  on  with  the  recitation.  Let  the  teacher 
take  the  pupil  in  question  outside  of  classtime,  and 
explain  the  difficulty  over  and  over,  simply,  more 
simply,  and  more  simply  yet,  but  with  patience  and 
cheerfulness,  and  at  some  point  he  "will  understand." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Explain  the  importance  of  definite  signals  in  passing 
classes  to  and  from  the  recitations.    What  are  some  of  the  tests 
of  good  signals? 

2.  How  should  pupils  be  seated  for  the  recitation?    What 
advantages  are  secured  by  proper  seating? 

3.  What  position  should  the  teacher  occupy  with  reference 
to  the  class  when  conducting  the  recitation?     Mention  some 
exercises  where  the  teacher  should  almost  invariably  stand  in 
teaching.     Mention  some  instances  in  schools  where  the  teacher 
is  at  an  advantage  if  he  sits  while  conducting  the  recitations. 

4.  To   what   extent   should   pupils   stand   when   reciting? 
When  is  such  a  requirement  a  waste  of  time? 

5.  What  are  the  requirements  of  a  good  system  in  distribut- 
ing supplies  for  the  recitation?   What  is  the  importance  of  having 
a  good  system?     If  five  minutes  each  day  are  wasted  in  distribut- 
ing and  collecting  supplies,  how  much  time  would  be  needlessly 
lost  in  a  year?     In  many  schools  this  loss  averages  twenty 
minutes  a  day.     On  this  basis  compute  the  loss  for  eight  years. 


MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  CLASS  81 

On  the  basis  of  the  annual  cost  of  a  thousand  dollars  for  the 
school  what  is  the  money  value  of  the  time  lost? 

6.  How  may  pictures  and  other  illustrations  be  shown  to  a 
class  in  a  speedy,  orderly,  and  effective  manner? 

7.  What  system  would  you  have  in  your  school  for  passing 
pupils  to  the  board  for  work?     How  many  seconds  should  elapse 
between  the  time  the  pupils  leave  their  recitation  seats  until 
they  are  at  work  at  the  board?     Can  a  system  be  so  perfected 
that  the  time  may  be  reduced  to  fifteen  seconds? 

8.  What  are  the  objections  to  pupils  asking  and  answering 
questions  in  the  class  without  permission?     How  does  this  evil 
arise?     How  may  it  be  corrected? 

9.  Mention  several  kinds  of  distracting  stimuli  frequently 
permitted  in  the  recitation.  Compare  the  probable  loss  of  time  due 
to  distracting  stimuli,  with  the  loss  likely  to  be  sustained  from  the 
practices  under  consideration  in  questions  4,  5,  6,  7,  and  8. 
Suppose  a  teacher's  management  is  defective  in  all  of  these 
particulars,  what  amount  of  time  would  you  estimate  such  a 
teacher  loses  during  the  year? 

10.  Show  the  relation  of  the  preparation  of  the  teacher  to 
class-control.     Point  out  right  and  wrong  ways  of  questioning 
to  secure  good  attention  in  the  class. 

11.  What  relation  exists  between  attention  in  the  class  and 
the  character  of  preparation  of  the  lesson  on  the  part  of  the 
pupils?     What  influence  has  the  tendency  of  the  teacher  to  recite 
the  lesson,  upon  the  preparation  of  the  lesson  by  the  pupils? 
How  does  this  tendency  influence  attention  in  the  class? 

12.  Show  the  importance  of  calling  for  an  assignment  that 
is  made. 

•>  13.  Give  a  method  of  conducting  the  recitation  that  is 
strongly  conducive  to  attention.  Show  how  the  method  may 
be  applied  to  the  several  subjects  of  the  course. 

14.  How  may  a  recitation  be  managed  so  as  to  avoid  giving 
too  much  attention  to  one  pupil  in  the  class?  What  evil  results 
follow  when  a  teacher  forgets  the  class  and  gives  exclusive  atten- 
tion to  a  pupil  who  has  unusual  difficulty  with  some  point  in  the 
lesson?  Explain  how  such  a  condition  should  be  managed. 


CHAPTER  VI 

MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  PLAYGROUND 

A  LARGE  part  of  the  annoyances  incident  to  the 
management  of  a  school  have  their  origin  in  the  play- 
ground. Many  of  the  difficulties  "settled"  on  the 
road  home  arise  during  the  intermissions  at  school; 
most  of  the  complaints  from  neighbors  and  those 
passing  the  school  originate  while  the  pupils  have  a 
free  hand  at  play. 

Supervision  Necessary.  Constant  supervision  of 
the  pupils  at  play  is  an  extreme  necessity.  This  is 
one  of  the  most  difficult  features  of  school  manage- 
ment for  many  teachers  to  realize. 

Teachers  spend  long  hours  trying  to  adjust  diffi- 
culties which  arise  almost  daily,  when  systematic 
supervision  of  the  ground  would  prevent  their  occur- 
rence. The  teacher  should  supervise  the  playground 
every  minute  the  pupils  are  engaged  in  play — before 
school,  at  recess,  at  noon,  and  at  the  close  of  school. 
The  presence  of  the  teacher  prevents  rudeness,  pro- 
fanity, vulgarity,  and  accident.  If  the  teacher  can 
participate  in  the  play,  it  enables  him  to  supervise 
and  at  the  same  time  add  interest  to  the  games,  gives 
him  an  added  insight  into  the  characters  of  his  charges, 
and  binds  them  closer  to  him.  The  teacher  who  knows 
the  characteristics  of  his  pupils  only  as  they  are  mani- 

82 


MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  PLAYGROUND      83 

fested  in  the  schoolroom  is  grossly  ignorant  of  many 
important  traits  of  his  pupils. 

Working  at  Recess.  The  teacher  who  uses  the 
recess  period  for  work  errs  for  several  reasons;  he 
loses  the  opportunity  for  supervision;  he  deprives  him- 
self of  the  needed  recreation;  and  he  is  likely  to  deprive 
others  from  rest  and  recreation.  The  teacher  who 
goes  out  to  play  with  the  pupils  at  the  intermissions 
returns  to  his  wor.k  fresh  with  vigor  of  mind  and  body. 
The  few  minutes  used  in  recreation  by  the  teacher  will 
give  him  strength  and  energy  for  effective  intellectual 
pursuits  after  school  hours;  he  will  be  able  to  do  a  high 
degree  of  work  much  longer  than  would  be  possible 
otherwise. 

The  recess  period  and  the  period  before  school 
when  the  pupils  are  on  the  playground,  are  too  impor- 
tant to  be  utilized  to  place  work  on  the  board,  or  to 
correct  work  which  has  been  placed  there  by  pupils  in 
recitation  periods.  The  teacher  should  place  all  such 
work  on  the  board  the  previous  evening  before  leaving 
his  room,  or  should  arrive  early  enough  in  the  morning 
for  that  purpose,  before  the  pupils  arrive.  A  little 
planning  will  make  it  possible  to  place  at  other  times 
all  work  necessary  to  be  written  on  the  board. 

Many  rural  teachers  attempt  to  hear  advanced 
pupils  at  recess.  It  is  doubtful  if  good  work  can  be 
done  at  this  time  under  the  conditions  likely  to  exist 
in  most  schools  at  the  recess  time.  The  division  of 
tne  teacher's  interest  between  the  playground,  his 
dlass,  and  those  likely  to  be  in  the  room,  renders  the 


84  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

best  work  impossible.  Whatever  he  might  gain,  how- 
ever, will  be  more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  losses 
and  disadvantages  suggested  above. 

Keeping  in  at  Recess.  The  practice  of  keeping 
pupils  in  at  recess  to  prepare  delinquent  lessons,  or 
for  punishment,  is  objectionable.  The  difficulties 
which  the  teacher  thus  attempts  to  correct  should  be 
approached  in  another  manner.  If  it  seems  desirable 
to  require  extra  study  from  the  pupil,  the  recess 
period  is  not  the  best  time  to  require  it.  A  few 
minutes  at  the  close  of  school  may  be  used  for  this 
purpose.  A  pupil  who  is  deprived  of  his  recreation  at 
recess  is  unable  to  accomplish  the  most  when  school 
is  called,  because  of  fatigue.  It  is  often  better  to 
disregard  slight  inaccuracies  in  preparation  for  a  time 
rather  than  detain  pupils  outside  of  regular  school 
hours.  The  teacher  should  study  carefully  to  discover 
the  cause  underlying  poor  lessons.  He  will  frequently 
find  that  there  is  a  deeper  reason  than  lack  of  study. 

Remove  Suggestive  Objects.  Pupils  are  prone  to 
make  use  of  all  materials  found  on  the  ground.  The 
teacher  should  be  constantly  on  the  alert  to  discover 
the  presence  of  objects  which  might  give  rise  to 
unpleasant  occurrences  at  school.  Often  during  the 
night,  objects  find  a  place  in  the  school  yard;  the 
children  discover  them  early  in  the  morning  or  during 
the  day,  and  disagreeable  experiences  follow.  When 
the  teacher  arrives  in  the  morning,  he  should  look 
the  premises  over  to  see  what  dangers  might  lurk 
there,  which  were  absent  the  previous  evening. 


MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  PLAYGROUND      85 

After  Hallowe'en  a  teacher  came  to  his  school;  he 
noticed  a  wagon  wheel  lying  in  the  yard  near  the 
building;  its  presence  suggested  nothing  to  him,  but 
when  the  pupils  arrived,  their  first  impulse  was  to  do 
something  with  that  new  curiosity,  which  it  truly  was 
to  them — on  the  school  ground.  Before  the  opening  of 
school  several  of  the  boys  had  succeeded  in  inducing 
another  boy  to  get  on  the  wheel,  wind  his  legs  about 
it,  and  get  ready  for  a  ride.  A  stick  was  placed  through 
the  hub  and  held  firmly  on  the  ground,  while  several 
boys  revolved  the  wheel.  In  the  absence  of  the 
teacher  the  pupils  continued  to  hold  the  boy  on  the 
wheel  and  revolve  it  rapidly.  In  a  few  minutes  the 
boy  had  lost  consciousness,  and  was  only  saved 
from  serious  injury  by  the  accidental  discovery  of  the 
event  by  the  teacher.  The  boy  was  all  the  remainder 
of  the  day  recovering  his  equilibrium.  It  is  clear  that 
the  thoughtful  teacher  would  have  removed  the  wheel 
before  the  arrival  of  the  pupils. 

In  a  neighboring  school  a  boy  found  on  the  grounds 
a  bottle  partly  filled  with  whiskey.  He  showed  it  to 
some  of  the  other  boys,  and  soon  a  challenge  was  made, 
coupled  with  a  dare,  to  taste  the  contents.  The 
natural  outcome  of  the  event  was  four  drunken  boys, 
with  all  the  exaggerations  and  gossip  incident  to  an 
occurrence  of  this  character. 

Traveling  troupes  and  circuses  often  suggest  much 
mischief  to  the  plastic  child  mind.  The  following 
incident  shows  how  these  may  at  times  affect  the 
school.  A  Wild  West  show  came  to  the  village;  most  of 


86  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

the  pupils  went,  which  was  all  well  and  good.  One  of 
the  stirring  exhibitions  of  the  show  was  the  capture 
and  summary  hanging  of  a  thief  in  true  western  style. 
A  rope  was  placed  about  the  victim's  neck,  thrown 
over  the  limb  of  a  tree,  and  he  was  drawn  up  and  let 
down  at  intervals  to  force  a  confession.  The  tragedy 
was  re-enacted  at  school;  several  of  the  boys  out  of  pure 
fun  captured  a  schoolmate,  placed  a  rope  about  his 
neck;  not  knowing  all  the  points  practiced  by  the 
showmen,  they  used  a  "slipknot"  instead  of  the  correct 
one;  the  pupil  was  choked  to  insensibility  before  a 
passerby  interrupted  the  procedure  and  prevented 
death.  There  are  enough  possibilities  amply  to 
justify  and  require  the  closest  watch  of  the  playground. 

Teaching  New  Games.  Pupils  are  interested  in 
new  games  because  they  rarely  know  how  to  play 
many  games.  The  teacher  should  teach  new  games 
until  pupils  have  a  variety  of  games  to  occupy  them 
in  play.  An  excellent  list  and  directions  for  playing 
the  games  may  be  had  from  almost  any  publishing 
house.  Much  valuable  material  may  be  had  along 
this  and  general  line.s  of  play  from  The  National 
Playground  Association,  Metropolitan  Life  Building, 
1  Madison  Avenue,  New  York  City.  Games  should 
be  suited  to  the  age  and  sex  of  the  pupils;  some 
games  are  suited  to  boys,  which  are  not  enjoyed  by 
girls,  and  vice  versa;  some  games  are  suited  to  younger 
pupils,  which  do  not  appeal  to  older  ones. 

Equipment  of  the  Ground.  With  little  expense 
some  equipment  may  be  added  to  the  ground,  which 


MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  PLAYGROUND      87 

will  aid  the  teacher  greatly  in  the  management  of  the 
playground.  One  of  the  things  most  enjoyed  by 
pupils  is  the  swing.  It  is  inexpensive  and  easily 
erected.  There  is  no  piece  of  apparatus  which  may 
be  secured  for  pupils  at  twenty  times  the  cost,  which 
will  hold  the  admiration  of  pupils  so  long.  The 
teeter  board,  the  jumping  rope,  the  tennis  court,  the 
basketball,  football,  volley  ball,  and  parallel  bars  are 
all  within  easy  reach  of  the  enterprising  teacher. 

Benefits  of  Play.  The  benefits  of  play  are  not 
confined  to  mere  occupation,  although  this  is  an 
important  function  for  the  teacher.  Vigorous  play 
puts  new  life  into  the  pupils,  and  affords  a  profitable 
outlet  for  confined  energies;  there  is  a  strong  desire 
for  motor  expression  on  the  part  of  growing  children; 
the  playground  provides  the  opportunity  for  this 
expression.  Pupils  who  engage  in  vigorous  play  return 
to  their  books  with  a  different  attitude;  study  under 
these  conditions  becomes  a  pleasant  recreation,  just  as 
the  joys  of  play  are  intensified  by  study. 

Expression  through  play  is  highly  educative;  it 
requires  active  thinking  to  play,  to  meet  the  new 
situations  constantly  arising  in  the  game.  The  play 
of  pupils  should  be  free  and  spontaneous.  The  teacher 
should  not  become  a  director  in  the  sense  of  being  a 
hindrance.  It  is  possible  to  direct  every  game  so 
mechanically  that  it  ceases  to  be  play,  and  becomes 
work. 

The  recess  period  is  so  important  for  play  that  no 
teacher  should  hold  pupils  in  the  schoolroom  for  slight 


88  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

causes;  it  may  be  cold,  muddy,  or  deep  snow,  but 
these  are  not  sufficient  reasons  to  have  indoor  recess; 
such  recesses  are  often  little  better  than  the  regular 
work  as  a  means  of  recreation.  Pupils  who  have  a 
tendency  to  stay  indoors  should  be  encouraged  to  go 
out  at  the  recess  time.  They  need  to  form  the  habit 
and  desire  for  play. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  does  the  conduct  of  pupils  on  the  playground  affect 
the  general  conduct  of  the  pupils  in  the  room  and  the  recitation? 

2.  How  and  when  should  the  teacher  supervise  the  play- 
ground?    Why  is  such  constant  supervision  necessary? 

3.  What  are  the  objections  to  the  teacher  working  during  the 
recess  time?     How  may  the  teacher  avoid  working  at  recess? 

4.  What  special  objection  is  there  to  keeping  pupils  in  at 
recess? 

5.  What  constant  attention  should  the  teacher  give  to  the 
school  grounds  to  prevent  annoyances? 

6.  In  what  manner  may  the  teacher  influence  the  games 
played  by  pupils? 

7.  Of    what   advantage   is   playground   equipment    in  the 
management  of   a  school?    How  and  what  may  the  teacher 
provide  at  little  expense? 

8.  Discuss  fully  the  benefits  of  play.     What  relation  exists 
between  play,  and  conduct  in  the  schoolroom  and  the  recitation? 


CHAPTER  VII 

PUNISHMENT 

PUNISHMENT  is  necessary  at  times  in  some  form  in 
every  school.  The  degree  of  judgment  manifested  in 
the  infliction  of  punishment  has  much  to  do  with  the 
success  of  the  teacher  in  the  management  of  his  school. 
There  is  no  other  phase  of  the  teacher's  work  which 
demands  more  careful  deliberation  than  the  problem 
of  punishment. 

Publicity  Objectionable.  The  punishment  of  pupils 
before  the  school  is  a  serious  mistake  in  almost  every 
case  where  the  punishment  is  corporal  in  its  nature. 
Reproof  administered  in  public  accomplishes  very 
little,  especially  with  older  pupils.  To  approach  a 
pupil  of  high  school  age  and  often  of  grammar  school 
age  and  attempt  to  discipline  him  publicly  is  likely  to 
lead  to  open  rebellion;  the  same  pupil  in  a  large  major- 
ity of  cases,  if  taken  in  private,  where  all  of  the  conse- 
quences of  his  acts  may  receive  thorough  considera- 
tion, will  acknowledge  his  error  and  comply  cheerfully 
with  the  teacher's  requirements.  The  teacher  who 
walks  down  the  aisle  and  deliberately  slaps  a  pupil  or 
otherwise  places  his  hands  on  him  violently  courts 
resistance  on  the  part  of  the  pupil.  A  boy  who  has 
pride  and  strength  would  be  impelled  to  fight — it  is  the 
perfectly  logical  reaction.  It  is  very  doubtful  if  a 

89 


90  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

majority  of  teachers  would  exhibit  sufficient  self- 
control  to  resist  avenging  such  an  insult.  Punishment 
may  be  necessary  in  many  cases,  but  its  effectiveness 
is  greatly  enhanced  by  administering  it  in  private. 
The  topics  discussed  in  the  homes  of  the  pupils  are 
the  unusual  happenings;  these  should  not  include  the 
more  distasteful  features  of  the  school.  The  school 
soon  secures  a  reputation  for  commotion  and  disorder 
out  of  all  proportion  to  its  deserts.  If  punishments 
are  administered  in  private,  many  pupils  will  remain 
wholly  ignorant  of  the  occurrence. 

Improper  Punishments.  There  are  many  kinds  of 
improper  punishments  as  compared  with  those  that  are 
proper.  Many  teachers  cast  discredit  upon  them- 
selves by  the  character  of  their  punishments  more  than 
by  the  amount  of  punishment.  The  day  of  locking 
pupils  in  closets  is  past  owing  to  modern  conceptions 
of  education,  though  it  is  still  practiced  occasionally  by 
the  unthinking  teacher.  It  should  be  classed  with  the 
"something  will  get  you"  methods  of  managing  chil- 
dren. It  is  conducive  to  fright  and  severe  shock  to 
small  children.  The  dark  has  a  great  horror  for  some 
children  because  of  certain  methods  and  superstitions 
practiced  in  the  home.  This  may  superinduce  or 
augment  nervous  disorders  which  would  be  difficult  of 
eradication. 

The  practice  of  tying  cloths  over  the  mouths  of 
children  to  prevent  whispering  is  open  to  severe 
criticism.  Many  of  these  cloths  are  filthy  and  unsani- 


PUNISHMENT  91 

tary  even  if  the  method  itself  were  otherwise  free  from 
objection.  The  presence  of  pupils  scattered  about  the 
room  with  their  mouths  bandaged  attracts  the  atten- 
tion of  other  pupils,  which  entails  a  great  loss  of  time. 
The  cause  of  communication  should  be  investigated; 
the  teacher  will  discover  that  other  remedies  are 
necessary  to  remove  the  cause. 

Washing  out  the  mouth  is  a  common  practice  for 
curing  offenders  from  the  use  of  bad  words.  This 
method  should  be  condemned  as  an  improper  punish- 
ment for  this  or  any  other  offense.  It  is  not  the 
mouth  that  is  at  fault;  the  teacher  may  as  well  wash 
one's  garments  as  a  means  of  reforming  his  character. 
Here,  again,  the  teacher  needs  to  analyze  the  case 
more  deeply  for  the  cause.  A  careful  study  of  the 
composition  and  manufacture  of  most  grades  of  soap 
would  cause  the  teacher  to  hesitate  to  wash  his  own 
mouth  with  it,  and  he  should  hesitate  for  other  reasons 
to  place  it  in  the  mouths  of  children.  Unusual  punish- 
ments1 are  often  also  particularly  repugnant  and  brand 
the  teacher  as  odd  and  eccentric. 

Placing  pupils  with  the  opposite  sex  as  a  means  of 
punishment  is,  for  small  children,  a  form  of  humilia- 
tion to  be  avoided.  It  is  likely  to  lead  to  taunts  outside 
of  the  school  and  to  engender  a  spirit  of  hatred  of  one 
pupil  against  another,  which  the  school  should  dis- 
courage rather  than  cultivate  in  any  form.  It  often 
happens  that  the  pupil  singled  out  for  the  instrument 
of  punishment  is  one  most  lacking  in  praiseworthy 


92  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

attributes.  It  is  a  manifest  injustice  to  magnify 
unduly  the  misfortunes  of  one  who  is  already  too  con- 
spicuous because  of  them. 

There  are  other  forms  of  punishment  which  savor 
of  the  elements  of  torture:  holding  heavy  objects, 
sitting  or  standing  in  fixed  positions,  deprivations  of 
necessary  privileges  for  long  periods,  are  punishments  of 
this  type.  All  of  these  punishments  hark  back  to  old 
conceptions  of  punishment  and  reformation;  it  was 
the  custom  of  civil  authorities  to  torture  those  guilty 
of  offenses;  human  ingenuity  taxed  its  resources  to  the 
limit  to  devise  more  severe  instruments  of  torture;  all 
of  these  have  been  put  aside  by  all  peoples  in  the  first 
ranks  of  civilization,  and  they  are  in  vogue  now  only 
in  the  countries  in  the  lowest  stages  of  progress.  The 
teacher  needs  the  new  vision  and  the  new  insight;  his 
efforts  should  be  directed  along  the  lines  of  formation, 
culture,  growth,  evolution. 

Apologizing  is  frequently  an  improper  form  of 
punishment,  and  should  be  resorted  to  sparingly  by 
the  teacher.  To  force  an  apology  upon  one  has  no 
meaning;  it  is  productive  of  evil  rather  than  good. 
A  pupil  who  genuinely  admits  his  wrong,  has,  at  least 
for  his  first  transgression,  balanced  his  account.  If  he 
desires  in  addition  to  make  an  apology,  it  is  com- 
mendable, but  not  otherwise.  The  teacher  often  errs 
by  supposing  that  some  public  display  of  admission 
of  guilt  and  punishment  are  necessary  before  a  wrong 
is  corrected.  It  is  a  misconception  to  suppose  that 
such  is  necessary  to  deter  others. 


PUNISHMENT  93 

Low  Grading  as  a  Punishment.  The  standing  of  a 
pupil  should  not  be  influenced  by  his  deportment; 
conduct  and  scholarship  belong  to  different  cate- 
gories. It  is  cowardly  and  unjust  for  the  teacher  to 
demote  a  pupil  or  reduce  his  normal  grade  because  of 
his  deportment.  A  standard  of  conduct  thus  main- 
tained is  not  such  as  to  abide.  The  fault  in  miscon- 
duct lies  in  the  motive  and  one's  conception  of  duty; 
these  should  be  the  points  of  attack  if  substantial 
results  are  realized.  This  may  not  always  be  easy;  it 
may  not  always  be  possible,  but  it  should  be  the 
regular  avenue  of  approach.  The  teacher  who  has 
not  tried  to  perfect  himself  in  the  art  of  reasoning 
with  young  people  has  not  come  into  full  consciousness 
of  his  power  to  influence  conduct  in  this  manner. 

A  boy  seventeen  years  of  age  neglected  to  write  his 
notes  in  his  science  work  until  he  became  several  days 
behind  his  class.  The  teacher  issued  the  ultimatum 
that  the  notes  must  be  completed  before  he  could  be 
admitted  to  the  class  in  any  other  recitation.  The 
next  day  he  did  not  pass  to  his  recitation  as  usual;  the 
principal  in  charge  of  the  study  hall  noticed  that  he 
did  not  pass  as  usual  and  asked  for  the  reason.  The 
pupil  said,  "Teacher  said  I  couldn't  come  to  the  recita- 
tion any  more  till  I  wrote  up  my  notes."  The  matter 
was  not  pressed  further  at  the  time;  the  principal  con- 
sidered the  matter  one  which  merited  private  treat- 
ment. At  the  close  of  school  he  detained  the  boy  for 
a  more  extensive  investigation  of  the  case.  He  called 
the  boy  before  him  in  private;  when  the  boy  was 


asked  about  the  matter,  he  was  white  with  anger  and 
with  much  display  of  emotion  he  said,  "I'll  never  write 
up  those  notes;  I'll  quit  school  first."  After  listening 
to  the  pupil's  story,  the  principal  in  perfect  calmness 
said,  "Now,  James,  you  do  not  want  to  write  those 
notes  because  you  think  the  teacher  wants  to  compel 
you  to  do  it;  and  you  want  to  show  that  you  cannot 
be  compelled  to  do  it  against  your  will;  is  not  that  the 
whole  question  in  a  'nutshell'?"  With  a  little  flush 
and  a  grin  the  boy  said,  "Yes,  I  guess  that's  about  it." 
"Tomorrow,"  said  the  principal,  "you  will  have  those 
notes  written  and  will  take  your  place  in  the  class;  you 
are  man  enough  to  do  it,  and  I  have  confidence  that 
you  will  comply  with  so  simple  and  reasonable  a 
demand;  that's  all;  I'm  not  looking  for  any  more 
trouble  in  this  regard."  The  next  day  the  notes  were 
written;  the  boy  assumed  his  place  in  the  class  without 
comment;  the  incident  was  closed.  And,  further,  the 
boy's  attitude  was  permanently  changed.  But,  sup- 
pose the  command  had  been  issued  "you  must"? 
There  was  no  force  at  the  command  of  the  school  to 
compel  compliance.  Only  one  result  ould  have  fol- 
lowed this  course — withdrawal  from  school. 

Appealing  in  Improper  Ways.  Some  appeals  to 
pupils  are  of  little  value  as  incentives  to  better  con- 
duct. To  ask  a  boy  to  be  good  for  his  mother's  sake, 
to  do  better  for  the  school's  sake,  or  the  teacher's 
sake,  is  of  little  consequence.  To  ask  one  to  be  good 
in  order  to  secure  a  good  grade  in  deportment  or  to 
possess  a  prize  seeks  vainly  for  results. 


PUNISHMENT  95 

Use  of  Tact.  The  necessity  for  punishment  may 
frequently  be  eliminated  by  the  exercise  of  a  little 
judgment  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  Difficulties 
often  develop  from  slight  incidents.  One  day  a  boy 
came  to  his  teacher  at  recess.  He  said,  "I  just  can't 
write  those  problems;  my  thumb  is  too  sore;  I  can't 
hold  the  pencil."  "Let  me  see  that  thumb,"  said  the 
teacher  sympathetically.  The  boy  heroically  un- 
wrapped his  thumb  and  showed  an  ugly  gash.  "Why," 
said  the  teacher,  "that  is  a  bad  thumb;  how  did  you 
do  that?"  The  boy  gave  her  a  vivid  account  of  just 
how  it  happened.  After  he  was  through,  the  teacher 
said,  "Don't  you  think  if  you  would  take  your  pencil 
in  this  way  [showing  him]  you  could  write  without 
hurting  your  sore  thumb?"  "Yes,"  said  the  boy 
proudly,  "I'll  manage  it!" 

Sometimes  it  may  be  difficult  to  discover  persons 
responsible  for  certain  offenses;  in  these  cases  it  is  best 
to  make  as  little  disturbance  as  possible  until  the 
party  is  definitely  known;  in  the  meantime,  it  is  well 
to  study  the  cause  of  the  disturbance. 

A  teacher  was  greatly  annoyed  by  pupils  throwing 
matches  on  the  floor;  hardly  a  class  arose  to  pass  that 
there  was  not  a  snapping  of  matches;  upon  investiga- 
tion he  discovered  that  the  matches  in  the  laboratory, 
which  was  adjacent  to  his  room,  were  exposed  to  plain 
view  and  were  easily  accessible.  He  removed  the 
matches  and  placed  them  in  concealment;  the  trouble 
from  matches  ceased  almost  at  once.  The  same 
principle  here  involved  applies  in  many  instances; 


96  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

great  care  should  be  taken  to  remove  from  access  shot, 
corn,  beads,  and  other  small  objects  which  might  be 
easily  rolled  or  thrown  about  the  room. 

A  teacher  who  was  greatly  disturbed  by  the 
throwing  of  marbles  in  her  class  was  at  a  loss  to  dis- 
cover the  guilty  party;  she  finally  took  her  roll  one 
evening  and  made  a  close  study  of  it;  she  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  there  was  only  one  boy  in  that  class 
who  was  likely  to  resort  to  a  practice  of  that  kind;  the 
next  day  she  took  this  boy  in  private  and  said,  "Charles, 
I  am  convinced  that  you  are  throwing  marbles  in  my 
class,  and  this  must  cease  at  once;  if  you  engage  in 
that  practice  again,  I  shall  be  duly  informed  of  it; 
I  want  you  to  govern  yourself  accordingly."  The 
throwing  ceased,  because  she  was  skillful  enough  to 
pick  out  the  guilty  party. 

On  Being  Annoyed.  The  teacher  who  is  easily 
annoyed  is  likely  to  have  many  causes  for  punishment 
that  the  teacher  who  is  differently  constituted  escapes. 
The  teacher  who  gets  greatly  excited  and  who  creates 
a  great  stir  when  things  go  wrong  furnishes  the  pupils 
much  amusement.  It  is  best  to  cultivate  composure 
under  all  circumstances — it  often  spoils  the  fun. 

The  janitor  of  a  village  school  was  determined  to 
avenge  a  wrong  committed  one  evening  by  persons 
placing  a  small  heap  of  ashes  in  front  of  the  boiler  room 
door;  he  reported  the  case  to  the  principal,  who  advised 
him  to  remove  the  ashes  and  say  nothing  about  it. 
He  did  as  he  was  directed,  but  the  act  was  repeated  the 
following  night;  again,  he  was  more  determined  to 


PUNISHMENT  97 

keep  watch  that  he  might  discover  and  punish  the 
offenders;  but  he  was  again  advised  to  keep  away  and 
wait  for  further  developments.  The  disturbance  was 
repeated  for  the  third  time,  but  still  nobody  showed 
annoyance  and  apparently  nobody  enjoyed  any  fun. 
The  disturbance  ceased,  because  to  resort  to  that 
amount  of  trouble  without  compensation  was  too  much 
for  a  boy  of  a  practical  turn  of  mind.  There  is  always 
time  enough  to  get  disturbed,  and  time  enough  to 
keep  watch  and  lay  plans  to  apprehend  those  who  are 
guilty  when  it  becomes  clearly  evident  that  these 
subtle  disturbances  are  not  likely  to  die  a  natural 
death. 

Corporal  Punishment.  Corporal  punishment  is  by 
no  means  a  cure-all.  The  thoughtful  teacher  resorts 
to  it  less  and  less  as  he  studies  its  effects.  One  might 
hesitate  to  forbid  it  entirely  under  all  circumstances; 
it  may  be  the  only  tool  some  teacher  can  use  to  compel 
obedience;  obedience  with  corporal  punishment  is 
certainly  better  than  bedlam  in  a  school,  but  it  should 
be  displaced  for  something  better  as  soon  as  possible. 
Teachers  who  resort  to  corporal  punishment  fre- 
quently, rarely  have  a  high  class  of  discipline  in  their 
rooms,  it  matters  not  by  what  standard  good  discipline 
is  determined.  Could  one  examine  the  reports  for  a 
year  in  a  system  of  schools  where  all  the  teachers  and 
conditions  in  other  respects  are  unknown  to  him,  and 
if  he  should  determine  the  number  of  cases  of  corporal 
punishment  for  each  teacher,  he  would  be  reason- 
ably safe  in  concluding  that  the  teacher  having  the 


98  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

highest  per  cent  of  corporal  punishment  was  the 
weakest  teacher  in  the  force  in  discipline  and 
the  teacher  maintaining  the  lowest  standard  of 
conduct  in  his  room.  Back  of  a  constant  need  of 
corporal  punishment  is  a  cause  which  operates  to 
make  it  necessary;  this  cause  may  be  a  teacher  of 
weak  personality ;  it  may  be  a  low  standard  of  instruc- 
tion; it  may  be  poor  organization  or  careless  supervision; 
wherever  it  exists,  it  would  be  possible  to  place  a 
teacher  who  would  eliminate  its  necessity  in  a  few 
days  and  yet  maintain  a  standard  of  discipline  all  but 
perfect.  Some  teachers  always  have  the  worst  pupils, 
the  worst  parents,  the  worst  board,  the  worst  com- 
munity, and  the  worst  associates;  others  always 
have  the  best.  So  much  depends  upon  the 
teacher. 

There  is  a  type  of  pupil  who  is  unmoved  by  cor- 
poral punishment;  no  amount  of  beating  will  produce 
in  him  a  single  desirable  response;  he  cannot  be  moved 
to  tears,  and  he  will  not  confess  his  error  or  promise 
not  to  repeat  the  offense;  lie  seems  to  obtain  real 
satisfaction  out  of  his  ability  to  pass  through  such  an 
ordeal  so  heroically.  Corporal  punishment  in  such 
cases  results  in  positive  harm. 

A  pupil  who  is  invulnerable  to  corporal  punishment 
is  often  easily  controlled  by  other  and  less  drastic 
methods.  To  be  required  to  remain  after  school  and 
devote  thirty  minutes  to  study  for  five  or  six  evenings 
seems  an  unbearable  task  to  some  of  this  type.  A 
little  study  and  experimentation  will  enable  most 


PUNISHMENT  99 

teachers  to  mete  out  punishment  suited  to  the  individu- 
ality of  the  pupil. 

Pupils  in  the  upper  grammar  grades,  and  especially 
in  the  high  school,  should  be  controlled  by  other 
methods;  the  per  cent  of  cases  amenable  to  corporal 
punishment  is  so  low  as  to  render  it  inadvisable. 
To  punish  thus  a  girl  in  these  years  is  almost  univer- 
sally a  mistake.  When  the  teacher  is  convinced  that 
the  exigencies  of  the  situation  demand  so  drastic  a 
move,  suspension  is  usually  preferable.  Public  opinion 
seldom  supports  the  teacher  who  uses  corporal  punish- 
ment on  a  girl  above  the  intermediate  grades;  the 
teacher  who  attempts  it  is  likely  to  shift  the  center  of 
blame  from  the  pupil  to  himself. 

Punishing  the  Teacher.  It  is  a  mistake  to  endeavor 
to  impress  pupils  with  the  extreme  sorrow  and  dis- 
appointment their  conduct  entails  upon  the  teacher. 
Too  often  this  claim  lacks  a  true  basis  of  sincerity. 
Teachers  have  often  carried  this  notion  of  punish- 
ment to  the  extremity  of  asking  the  pupil  to  take  the 
instrument  and  apply  it  to  them.  Teachers  have  by 
this  soft  attitude  toward  punishment  been  chagrined 
frequently  by  having  the  lash  applied  to  them  by  the 
offending  pupil  with  a  genuine  relish  instead  of  an 
imaginary  anguish.  Attitudes  of  this  character 
cheapen  the  teacher  in  the  eyes  of  his  pupils  and 
render  him  a  fit  subject  for  ridicule. 

Detention  as  a  Means  of  Punishment.  Detention 
may  be  resorted  to  effectively  at  times  as  a  means  of 
punishment,  especially  with  older  pupils.  The  best 


100    PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

time  to  do  this  is  generally  at  the  close  of  school  in  the 
evening.  Pupils  thus  detained  should  be  required  to 
accomplish  a  definite  amount  of  work;  this  work  should 
be  carefully  assigned  and  passed  upon  by  the  teacher. 
The  time  of  detention  should  be  limited  only  by  the 
accomplishment  of  the  assigned  task.  The  teacher 
can  easily  prepare  a  list  of  problems  sufficient  for 
several  evenings;  each  evening  he  may  pass  to  the 
pupils  due  to  perform  tasks  at  the  close  of  school  the 
list  of  problems,  and  designate  a  number,  say  ten,  to 
be  solved  and  handed  to  him  for  inspection  before  the 
pupil  is  excused. 

This  plan  may  be  used  to  suppress  persistent  whis- 
pering, note-writing,  and  truancy.  Specific  punish- 
ment, however,  should  not  be  resorted  to  by  the 
teacher  until  other  means  have  been  exhausted  to 
correct  the  evil.  In  this  event  it  is  well  to  apply  the 
punishment  in  a  definite  and  systematic  manner.  The 
following  plan  works  well  usually  with  chronic  offenders: 
The  teacher  places  the  offenders  on  a  roll  provided  for 
the  purpose;  he  checks  each  pupil  minus  for  unsatis- 
factory conduct  and  plus  for  satisfactory  conduct;  a 
pupil  who  checks  "minus"  for  a  given  day  is  required 
to  do  service  after  school  hours  for  three  successive 
days  or  longer  until  he  is  able  to  secure  a  record  of 
three  consecutive  "plus"  checks;  he  is  then  excused 
from  service  until  his  record  shows  one  "minus" 
check,  at  which  time  he  must  again  begin  serving. 
The  pupil's  conduct  may  show  little  improvement  at 
first,  but  a  persistent  policy  pursued  in  its  application 


PUNISHMENT  101 

will  soon  convince  the  offender  that  it  is  better  to 
comply  with  requirements  than  to  make  up  lost  time 
at  the  close  of  school. 

It  may  seem  that  this  plan  places  too  much  addi- 
tional service  upon  the  teacher.  It  may  be  said  in 
reply,  however,  that  all  forms  of  punishment  do  this 
to  some  extent;  the  teacher  must  pay  the  price  of 
disorder  in  one  form  or  another.  He  may  neglect  to 
control  his  school  on  the  plea  that  he  is  not  required 
to  give  extra  time  on  the  account  of  offenders,  but 
because  of  his  failure  to  become  master  he  may  be 
required  to  yield  his  position  to  another  who  is 
determined  to  give  whatever  is  necessary  to  meet  the 
situation.  The  teacher  who  is  afraid  of  himself,  the 
one  who  is  easily  "punished"  by  administering  a 
punishment  when  it  is  needed  seldom  gets  control  of 
the  situation. 

A  pupil  who  loses  time  through  truancy  should  be 
compelled  to  return  a  full  measure  of  time  for  the  loss 
sustained,  and  more  if  he  is  a  chronic  offender.  Truancy 
arises  in  most  instances  because  of  a  desire  to  obtain 
additional  time  for  private  use;  when  the  loss  is 
replaced  from  the  pupil's  resources,  nothing  is  gained 
by  the  pupil. 

Isolation  as  a  Means  of  Punishment.  A  pupil 
who  is  an  habitual  offender  should  be  compelled  to 
forfeit  his  right  to  instruction  with  other  pupils;  no 
pupil  should  be  privileged  to  deter  his  schoolmates 
from  the  highest  benefits  of  instruction.  If  it  is 
impossible  to  instruct  others  to  advantage  while  he  is 


102    PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

present  in  the  recitation,  he  should  be  deprived  of  the 
instruction  in  the  class  with  them.  He  should  be 
given  his  instruction  separately  and  outside  of  school 
hours.  When  he  manifests  a  willingness  to  comply 
with  the  teacher's  requirements,  he  should  be  rein- 
stated. A  pupil  may  often  be  removed  entirely  from 
the  room  and  be  required  to  sit  in  some  specially 
provided  place  where  it  will  be  impossible  for  him  to 
disturb  others.  The  method  of  isolation  should  be 
applied  only  in  extreme  cases  and  then  with  older 
pupils;  it  should  be  considered  as  one  of  the  methods 
of  last  resort;  it  may  prevent  the  necessity  for  expul- 
sion, and  be  the  means  of  enabling  a  pupil  who  for  the 
time  is  unmindful  of  his  own  interests,  to  obtain  an 
education. 

Sending  Pupils  Home.  It  should  be  rarely  neces- 
sary to  send  a  pupil  home  for  a  breach  of  discipline;  to 
do  so  for  slight  offenses  is  a  serious  mistake.  Nothing 
is  gained  by  it,  and  much  is  lost;  the  teacher  thus 
confesses  his  inability  to  manage  the  pupil;  this  fact  is 
conducive  to  further  violations  from  the  pupil  offend- 
ing. It  often  happens  that  a  pupil  who  is  sent  home 
does  not  report  at  home;  he  is  virtually  rewarded  by 
the  teacher  with  a  holiday  for  his  disorder.  To  send 
two  or  more  pupils  home  at  the  same  time  is  to  weaken 
still  more  the  effectiveness  of  this  form  of  punishment; 
the  incident  becomes  a  matter  of  mutual  heroism  in 
the  eyes  of  the  offending  parties.  The  teacher  places 
too  much  reliance  on  the  parent  in  sending  the  pupil 
home  for  correction.  The  sympathy  of  the  parent  in 


PUNISHMENT  103 

such  cases  is  usually  with  the  teacher,  when  he  has  a  full 
knowledge  of  the  facts;  but,  very  often  the  parent  is 
dependent  upon  the  pupil  for  his  knowledge  of  the 
case;  in  this  event  the  pupil  rarely  gives  a  report 
which  is  unfavorable  to  himself. 

Resorting  to  Higher  Authority.  Every  teacher 
should  control  his  own  school  wherever  it  is  at  all 
possible;  he  should  inflict  all  punishments  and  be  the 
chief  mediator  in  the  settlement  of  all  questions.  He 
should  consult  freely  with  those  higher  in  authority  for 
advice  and  for  the  purpose  of  determining  whether  his 
policy  is  approved,  but  to  surrender  common  cases  to 
others  for  adjustment  weakens  materially  the  pupils' 
respect  for  the  authority  of  the  teacher.  The  teacher 
who  habitually  sends  his  pupils  to  the  principal  for 
correction  is  seldom  able  to  maintain  a  high  standard 
of  discipline  in  his  school.  The  number  of  reports  of 
"Sent  from  class"  increase  in  direct  proportion  to  the 
inefficiency  of  the  teacher. 

Teacher's  Relation  to  the  Parent.  The  teacher 
should  not  call  to  his  aid  the  support  of  the  parent 
except  in  great  emergencies.  His  authority  is  weak- 
ened by  so  doing,  if  the  support  were  freely  given,  but 
it  is  quite  likely  to  be  denied.  After  the  teacher 
inflicts  punishment,  it  is  unwise  to  go  to  the  parent 
to  "explain."  No  explanation  is  due;  the  teacher  has 
simply  discharged  his  duty.  If  the  parent  is  not  satis- 
fied with  the  case,  he  should  come  to  the  teacher 
voluntarily,  who  should  extend  him  every  courtesy;  he 
should  define  his  position  clearly  without  any  disposi- 


104    PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

tion  to  compromise  with  wrongdoing.  A  teacher 
should  never  act  until  he  is  unmistakably  in  the  right; 
then  he  should  have  the  courage  to  stand  by  his 
decision  whatever  the  cost;  a  firm  hand,  extended  in  the 
right  direction,  is  unlikely  to  be  opposed  successfully. 

In  cases  of  gross  disobedience  the  teacher  may  call 
to  the  school  the  parent;  it  may  be  desirable  to  send 
the  pupil  home  to  bring  the  parent  for  a  conference  and 
a  subsequent  understanding  before  the  pupil  is  per- 
mitted to  continue  his  work  in  school.  The  teacher's 
purpose  here  is  not  so  much  to  obtain  aid  as  it  is  to 
explain  the  circumstances  to  the  parent  in  the  presence 
of  his  child  before  radical  measures  are  applied.  He 
is  thus  duly  informed  of  consequences  likely  to  follow 
a  further  continuance  of  breaches  of  discipline  on  the 
part  of  his  child;  he  can  have  little  excuse  after  he  has 
been  apprised  of  the  facts,  if  it  is  necessary  to  deny  his 
child  lie  privileges  of  the  school. 

A  teacher  assumed  the  management  of  a  high 
school  where  much  annoyance  had  been  experienced  by 
pupils  leaving  the  school  during  school  hours.  Within 
a  few  weeks  after  school  opened,  two  boys  in  the  senior 
class  withdrew  from  the  school  without  being  excused 
and  without  announcement.  The  next  morning  when 
they  arrived,  they  were  sent  to  the  office;  they  were 
informed  that  they  were  no  longer  considered  members 
of  the  school,  and  could  not  be  re-instated  unless 
satisfactory  arrangements  could  be  made  with  their 
parents.  They  were  asked  to  take  up  the  matter 
with  their  parents,  if  they  wished  to  continue  their 


PUNISHMENT  105 

work  in  school;  the  condition  required  of  them  was 
that  they  bring  the  parents — either  father  or  mother — 
to  the  school  building.  They  returned  home  and 
explained  the  matter  to  their  fathers;  they  came  to 
the  school  where  the  principal  explained  the  conse- 
quences of  such  practices,  and  announced  that  he 
would  not  under  any  circumstances  permit  such  prac- 
tices to  continue;  he  would  not  agree  to  re-instate 
the  offenders  unless  the  parents  should  guarantee  there 
would  not  be  a  repetition  of  the  offense;  the  agreement 
was  given,  and  there  were  very  few  offenses  of  this 
character  in  the  subsequent  six  years  of  his  administra- 
tion of  the  schools. 

Complaining  to  the  Parent.  The  parent  seldom 
appreciates  being  reminded  of  the  faults  of  his  own 
children,  whatever  may  be  the  basis  for  the  complaint. 
The  teacher  should  accept  the  pupils  as  they  are,  and 
endeavor  to  correct  their  deficiencies  so  far  as  possible. 
The  disposition  of  the  teacher  to  relate  his  troubles 
to  the  parent  is  abhorred  by  most  patrons  of  a  school. 
The  teacher  may  be  mistaken  in  his  judgment  in 
many  instances  before  he  has  seen  all  of  the  qualities 
of  a  child  manifested;  it  may  be  that  the  evil  tendency 
which  is  being  manifested  is  likely  to  be  of  short  dura- 
tion. It  is  impossible  to  pass  final  judgments  upon 
growing  children.  Not  all  of  their  mistakes  and  evil 
tendencies  lead  to  the  door  of  the  prison. 

The  teacher  should  use  great  caution  in  his  attitude 
toward  reports  he  receives  concerning  the  conduct  of 
the  child  outside  of  school  hours.  Many  of  these 


106     PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

reports  are  greatly  exaggerated  and  frequently  are 
wholly  false;  at  any  rate,  they  are  no  more  the  concern 
of  the  teacher  than  they  should  be  of  persons  in  other 
walks  of  life.  It  is  questionable  if  the  teacher  should 
add  to  his  already  complicated  relations  with  his 
patrons  by  assuming  to  assist  the  parent  in  directing 
the  conduct  of  his  children  in  the  home.  If  he  obtains 
information  which  he  deems  advisable  to  place  in 
possession  of  the  parent,  he  should  have  unmistakable 
evidence  of  its  reliability.  Reports  made  on  hearsay 
are  very  unreliable. 

Ridicule,  Sarcasm,  and  Irony.  The  use  of  ridicule, 
sarcasm,  and  irony  are  objectionable  in  the  schoolroom. 
They  indicate  a  wrong  spirit  in  the  teacher  and  are 
likely  to  develop  objectionable  attitudes  in  the  pupils. 
Their  use  as  a  means  of  punishment  is  out  of  keeping 
with  the  dignity  which  should  characterize  the  relation- 
ship between  teacher  and  pupils.  The  designation  of 
pupils  by  any  appellations  other  than  their  true  names 
finds  no  place  in  a  school  presided  over  by  a  teacher 
of  the  highest  type;  such  practices  are  too  crude  to  be 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  schoolroom  usage 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Give  reasons  why  punishment  should  be  administered  in 
private. 

2.  Give  the  six  kinds  of  improper  punishments  commonly 
practiced  in  some  schools. 

3.  What  is  the  objection  to  compelling  a  pupil  to  apologize 
for  some  offense? 


PUNISHMENT  107 

4.  Discuss  low  grading  as  a  means  of  punishment.     What 
caution  must  a  teacher  exercise  in  the  management  of  a  stubborn 
pupil?     Show  that  a  stubborn  pupil  is  not  necessarily  an  unruly 
pupil,  and  is  not  necessarily  weak  in  scholarship. 

5.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  use  of  tact  as  a  means  of 
avoiding    the    necessity    for    punishment?     Show    how    trivial 
matters  in  school  may,  through  lack  of  tact  or  faulty  judgment, 
lead  to  serious  consequences. 

6.  Why   should   the   teacher   cultivate   great   self-control 
amidst  the  annoyances  incident  to  the  school? 

7.  Discuss  the  merits  of  corporal  punishment.     Why  do 
some  teachers  need  to  resort  to  corporal  punishment  so  often 
while  other  teachers  seldom  use  it,  even  with  the  same  pupils? 
In  what  instances  is  corporal  punishment  inadvisable? 

8.  Discuss  "punishing  the  teacher"  as  a  means  of  punishing 
the  pupil. 

9.  How  should  detention  be  used  as  a  means  of  punishment? 
In  what  manner  may  it  be  used  with  chronic  offenders?    Why 
is  detention  a  natural  punishment  for  truancy? 

10.  Show  that  all  forms  of  punishment  usually  place  an  extra 
burden  upon  the  teacher. 

11.  How  should  isolation  be  used  in  punishment? 

12.  What  are  the  objections  to  sending  pupils  home  as  a 
means  of  punishment? 

13.  Why  should  the  teacher  inflict  punishment  upon  his  own 
pupils  rather  than  to  send  them  to  higher  authority  for  this 
purpose? 

14.  When  is  it  advisable  and  when  is  it  not  advisable  to  con- 
fer with  the  parent  regarding  the  punishment  of  a  pupil? 

15.  Why  should  the  teacher  exercise  great  caution  about 
complaining   to   parents   about   the   faults   of   their   children? 
What  attitude  should  the  teacher  assume  toward  the  misconduct 
of  his  pupils  outside  of  school? 

16.  Discuss  ridicule,  sarcasm,  and  irony  as  means  of  punish- 
ment. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  ASSIGNMENT 

Importance  of  the  Assignment.  The  most  impor- 
tant part  of  the  recitation  is  the  period  of  the  assign- 
ment. If  one  can  be  present  when  a  teacher  makes 
his  assignment  in  the  recitation,  he  can  determine 
quite  accurately  the  efficiency  of  the  teacher.  The 
teacher's  conception  of  teaching,  his  appreciation  of 
the  difficulties  of  the  subject  to  the  learner,  and  his 
whole  grasp  of  educational  principles  are  revealed  by 
the  character  of  his  assignment.  The  assignment 
should  be  well  made  if  nothing  else  is  accomplished  in 
the  recitation.  A  great  amount  of  poor  work,  a  large 
amount  of  idleness,  numerous  false  notions,  and  much 
waste  of  time  are  traceable  to  lack  of  skill  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher  in  making  assignments. 

Preparation  of  the  Teacher  for  the  Assignment. 
Experience  alone  can  make  the  teacher  highly  skilled 
in  making  lesson  assignments.  There  is  a  delicate 
adjustment  of  the  lesson  to  the  ability  of  the  class  and 
the  progress  of  the  pupils  from  day  to  day  that  can  be 
made  only  as  the  needs  are  determined  each  day. 
There  are,  however,  some  very  definite  requirements 
which  the  teacher  must  meet  if  he  is  to  be  even  approxi- 
mately successful  in  making  assignments  suited  to  the 
needs  of  his  pupils.  The  teacher  in  all  instances 

tos 


THE  ASSIGNMENT  109 

must  make  careful  preparation  for  the  assignment  in 
advance.  No  teacher  can  make  a  proper  assignment 
who  is  unfamiliar  with  the  matter  in  the  assignment 
in  every  detail.  The  inexperienced  teacher  often 
makes  inadequate  preparation  for  the  assignment 
because  of  his  unfamiliarity  with  the  capabilities  of 
the  pupils  of  the  age  he  is  instructing  and  because  of 
his  lack  of  appreciation  of  the  inherent  difficulties  of 
the  subject  to  the  learner.  It  is  necessary  for  the 
teacher  to  study  very  carefully  the  lesson  he  intends 
to  assign.  He  must  be  familiar  with  the  subject- 
matter  as  a  whole  and  in  detail.  He  should  know  the 
lesson  better  on  the  day  he  makes  his  assignment  to 
the  pupils  than  he  expects  them  to  know  the  lesson  on 
the  following  day.  Matter  in  the  assignment  which 
he  finds  difficult  to  comprehend  he  may  safely  assume 
will  cause  his  pupils  greater  difficulty,  and  to  many 
pupils  will  be  impossible  of  accomplishment.  The 
teacher  should  endeavor  to  place  himself  in  the  position 
of  his  pupils  and  endeavor  to  appreciate  as  far  as 
possible  their  point  of  view  and  their  difficulties.  He 
will  be  greatly  assisted  if  he  can  recall  accurately  his 
own  experience  and  difficulties  at  the  time  he  was 
trying  to  master  the  subject.  He  should  then  try  to 
bring  before  his  class  material  and  illustrations  of 
various  kinds  which  will  enable  his  pupils  to  acquire 
his  present  conception  of  the  subject  without  experienc- 
ing his  perplexities.  A  teacher  who  studies  his  subject, 
his  class,  and  the  defects  of  his  text  may  soon  reach 
such  a  perfect  understanding  of  the  difficulties  of  the 


110    PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

subject  to  the  learner,  and  he  may  come  to  know  so 
well  the  mental  characteristics  of  pupils  at  that  stage 
of  learning,  that  he  can  open  his  book  at  almost  any 
page  and  tell  with  great  accuracy  just  what  difficulties 
his  pupils  will  experience  with  the  subject  at  that  point, 
and  he  will  know  just  what  form  of  explanation  is 
necessary  to  set  the  learner  right.  The  teacher  who 
has  become  master  in  these  two  directions,  master  of 
the  subject-matter  and  master  in  his  knowledge  of 
the  pupils  may  lead  his  pupils  along  so  skillfully  that 
they  will  grow  intellectually  as  gradually  and  natur- 
ally as  a  plant  grows. 

Preparation  of  the  Pupils  for  the  Assignment. 
Before  pupils  are  assigned  a  lesson  for  preparation,  the 
teacher  must  be  sure  they  know  how  to  proceed  to 
make  an  intelligent  effort  in  the  preparation.  It  is 
rarely  advisable  to  ask  pupils  to  prepare  a  lesson 
which  involves  new  subject-matter  until  the  teacher 
has  explained  the  nature  of  the  work  to  be  done. 
The  teacher  cannot  rely  upon  introductory  explana- 
tions given  in  the  text  to  familiarize  the  pupils  with 
the  nature  of  the  work  to  be  done.  This  introductory 
work  must  be  done  by  the  teacher.  After  it  is  done 
in  the  class,  enough  of  the  preparation  of  the  lesson 
should  then  be  done  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher 
to  enable  him  to  judge  unmistakably  concerning  the 
ability  of  the  pupils  to  prepare  the  lesson  assigned. 
It  may  be  that  pupils  are  given  an  assignment  in 
arithmetic  which  involves  a  knowledge  of  the  lever. 
It  is  not  likely  that  pupils  are  familiar  with  the  prin- 


THE  ASSIGNMENT  111 

ciple  of  the  lever;  they  cannot  solve  problems  where 
this  principle  is  involved  until  they  have  had  the 
principle  thoroughly  explained.  This,  thenx  becomes 
the  objective  point  of  the  teacher  before  he  assigns 
the  problems  for  the  lesson.  The  thermometer  and 
the  clock  dial  are  usually  introduced  in  arithmetic 
before  the  pupils  are  familiar  with  them  sufficiently  to 
solve  problems  involving  them.  It  is  needless  to 
make  the  attempt  until  they  are  understood  by  the 
pupils. 

A  certain  teacher  was  studying  Merchant  of  Venice 
with  a  freshman  class  in  the  high  school.  At  a  given 
point  in  the  work  she  asked  the  pupils  to  write  a 
character  sketch  of  Bassanio.  Nothing  had  been  said 
before  about  the  nature  of  a  character  sketch.  The 
method  of  procedure  was  not  even  hinted.  The 
unexplained  statement  was  made,  "Prepare  a  character 
sketch  of  Bassanio."  The  pupils  were  then  sent  from 
the  class  to  grope  in  the  dark  and  wander  aimlessly 
trying  to  reach  some  goal  by  accident,  a  goal  they 
would  not  recognize  if  it  were  attained.  The  following 
day  the  pupils  returned  to  the  recitation  with  three  or 
four  disconnected  sentences  about  Bassanio.  Some  of 
the  pupils  had  not  even  made  an  attempt.  If  the 
teacher  had  explained  the  method  of  procedure;  if 
she  had  asked  the  pupils  to  open  their  books  and  read 
with  her  a  few  of  the  speeches  of  Bassanio  with  the 
definite  purpose  of  determining  from  these  the  manner 
in  which  his  character  is  revealed  to  the  reader,  there 
would  have  been  some  well-written  sketches  for  the 


112     PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

lesson  the  next  day,  and  the  pupils  would  have  received 
a  permanent  lesson  of  value  in  writing  character 
sketches.  After  three  days  of  aimless  work,  the 
teacher  saw  the  necessity  of  doing  the  very  thing  she 
should  have  done  the  first  day.  There  is  too  much 
time  wasted  hi  school  by  setting  pupils  adrift  to  accom- 
plish something,  not  well  defined,  by  the  hit-or-miss 
process.  If  all  of  the  loss  of  time  thus  wasted  could 
be  saved  by  intelligent  direction  from  the  first  day  of 
a  pupil's  school  life  to  the  last,  the  time  required  to 
accomplish  the  work  of  the  schools  would  be  very 
greatly  shortened.  The  great  difference  in  teachers  is 
a  difference  in  the  saving  of  time  through  careful 
preparation  for  assigned  tasks.  The  skillful  teacher 
can  predict  very  definitely  the  results  which  will  follow 
a  given  task  assigned  her  pupils;  the  unskillful  teacher 
cannot  tell  what  the  harvest  will  be  until  the  pupils 
report. 

How  Much  Aid  to  Give  the  Pupils.  It  is  never  a 
question  with  the  teacher  whether  he  should  or  should 
not  give  his  pupils  aid  toward  the  preparation  of 
assigned  lessons;  the  only  question  is  the  amount  of 
aid  which  is  necessary.  Without  any  aid  the  progress 
of  some  pupils  is  impossible,  and  the  progress  of 
many  pupils  is  very  slow.  To  give  pupils  more  aid 
than  is  necessary  is  to  take  from  them  the  means  of 
growth,  and  to  give  them  less  aid  than  is  necessary 
leads  to  discouragement  and  often  to  indifference  in 
the  preparation  of  the  lesson.  Some  teachers  give  no 
aid  at  all;  they  think  pupils  gain  strength  by  making 


THE  ASSIGNMENT  1 13 

attempts  to  master  the  lesson,  although  they  may  not 
understand  the  difficulties  assigned  them.  After  the 
pupils  have  made  the  attempt,  they  argue,  the  teacher 
can  give  just  such  assistance  as  is  necessary.  Expe- 
rience shows,  however,  that  pupils  instructed  on  this 
plan  are  rarely  strong  in  their  grasp  of  the  subject,  and 
they  are  rarely  conspicuous  for  struggling  with  difficult 
points  in  the  assignment.  It  is  certainly  poor  economy 
and  poor  pedagogy  for  a  teacher  to  assign  a  lesson 
in  mathematics,  for  example,  without  any  comment, 
and  on  the  following  day  call  for  "problems  you  were 
unable  to  understand,"  and  take  the  whole  time  of  the 
recitation  solving  the  problems  for  the  class,  when  a 
few  well-directed  suggestions  would  have  enabled  a 
large  majority  of  the  class  to  have  worked  out  the 
solutions  for  themselves.  It  is  generally  true  that 
problems  thus  solved  and  hastily  explained  by  the 
teacher  are  rarely  understood  by  those  who  have  had 
trouble  with  them.  These  pupils  need  to  arrive  at  the 
solutions  of  the  problems  by  a  logical  marshaling  of 
the  conditions  and  principles  underlying  them.  This  is 
impossible  where  another  does  most  of  the  thinking 
for  the  pupils. 

Getting  the  Assignment  from  the  Text.  Teachers 
frequently  have  trouble  in  getting  pupils  to  master 
the  subject-matter  of  the  text  in  a  manner  to  recite  it 
well  at  the  time  of  the  recitation.  This  ability  is  not 
acquired  in  a  day,  but  it  is  an  accomplishment  which  may 
be  acquired  by  the  pupils  if  they  are  properly  directed 
by  the  teacher.  There  is  a  stage  in  school  work  where 


1 14    PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

the  teacher  must  make  a  conscious  effort  to  train  the 
pupils  to  gather  the  substance  of  an  assignment  from 
the  text.  If  this  work  has  not  been  done,  it  is  the 
duty  of  the  teacher  to  train  the  pupils  at  whatever 
stage  he  finds  them  in  school.  It  may  be  that  pupils 
in  the  high  school  do  not  understand  how  to  study  a 
lesson  from  the  text;  if  they  do  not,  it  is  the  duty  of 
the  teacher  to  make  the  beginning. 

The  chief  place  where  the  teacher  is  likely  to  feel 
the  need  first  in  school  for  ability  to  master  an  assign- 
ment from  the  text  is  in  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth 
grades.  But  at  all  stages  in  school  there  is  need  of 
more  or  less  assistance  from  the  teacher  to  enable  the 
pupils  to  study  to  the  best  advantage.  This  ability 
cannot  be  acquired  by  the  pupils  if  the  teacher  merely 
assigns  so  many  pages  or  paragraphs  from  day  to  day 
without  comment.  It  does  no  good  for  the  teacher  to 
charge  the  pupils  with  indolence,  lack  of  study,  and 
poor  preparation  for  the  grade.  This  attitude  is 
always  harmful.  What  the  pupils  need  is  careful 
direction  and  training  in  sifting  out  the  matter  in  the 
text  so  as  to  present  it  in  their  own  words  at  the  time 
of  the  recitation.  Many  pupils  study  the  text  too 
closely;  they  study  isolated  sentences  and  try  to 
remember  exact  wording  of  sentences  rather  than  to 
grasp  the  content  of  the  topic  or  lesson  as  a  whole. 
Pupils  are  inclined  to  read  over  the  lesson  instead  of 
making  a  study  of  the  various  points  of  the  lesson. 
The  teacher  must  induce  the  pupils  to  study  the 
separate  paragraphs  of  the  lesson  by  reading  and 


THE  ASSIGNMENT  115 

re-reading  the  same  paragraphs  until  the  substance 
of  each  is  well  fixed  in  the  mind.  The  ability  to  do  this 
requires  time  for  the  pupils  and  patience  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher.  A  good  method  of  procedure  is  to  study 
the  lesson  with  the  pupils;  the  class  should  take  the 
lesson  up  paragraph  by  paragraph  and  topic  by  topic 
under  the  direction  of  the  teacher.  The  teacher  should 
ask  the  pupils  to  watch  for  the  leading  thought  as  the 
paragraph  is  read  aloud  by  one  of  the  pupils.  After 
one  or  two  readings  of  the  paragraph,  let  the  pupils 
close  their  books  and  concentrate  their  thoughts  on 
the  meaning  of  the  paragraph;  different  pupils  should 
then  be  called  upon  to  relate  as  completely  as  possible 
the  thought  of  the  paragraph  studied.  For  many 
pupils  this  will  be  their  first  experience  in  reflection 
upon  the  content  of  the  matter  they  have  read.  Daily 
practice  of  this  character  will  remove  a  large  part  of 
the  difficulty  experienced  by  teachers  in  getting  pupils 
to  master  the  text. 

Pupils  need  careful  direction  in  the  mastery  of  the 
text  of  every  new  subject  even  after  they  have  acquired 
fair  ability  to  gather  the  thought  in  subjects  which 
they  have  studied  for  some  time.  It  is  often  true  that 
pupils  in  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  grades  may 
acquire  the  ability  to  gather  quickly  minute  details 
from  oral  instruction  and  become  unable  to  gather 
much  more  simple  matter  from  a  written  presentation 
in  the  text.  The  withdrawal  of  all  oral  presentation 
and  the  abrupt  substitution  of  all  presentation  in  the 
written  form  is  too  radical;  if  the  teacher  experiences 


116     PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

great  difficulty  in  this  respect  he  may  supplement  the 
plan  suggested  above  by  some  oral  presentation. 

Adapting  the  Text  to  the  Pupils.  There  are  many 
common  faults  of  texts;  this  is  particularly  true  of 
books  in  arithmetic  and  mathematics  books  in  general. 
Books  often  lack  in  concreteness,  and  the  subject- 
matter  is  couched  in  terms  unintelligible  to  the  pupils. 
These  difficulties,  however,  may  be  and  often  are  well 
met  by  the  teacher  in  the  manner  suggested  above; 
but  there  is  another  general  weakness  of  books  which 
is  more  serious  and  which  is  seldom  overcome  by  the 
inexperienced  teacher.  This  weakness  is  the  lack  of 
proper  gradation  and  the  lack  of  organization  of  the 
subject-material  in  a  form  which  renders  the  subject 
easily  understood  by  the  pupils.  The  material  is 
often  too  difficult  to  be  presented  in  the  early  stages  of 
the  development  of  the  topic;  the  material  is  pre- 
sented so  rapidly  that  too  many  new  elements  come 
together;  or  insufficient  material  is  presented  to  give 
the  pupils  a  clear  understanding  of  the  several  topics 
treated.  The  teacher  must  be  quick  to  recognize  the 
extent  of  these  defects  and  must  counteract  the  evils 
which  are  inevitable  if  they  are  left  uncorrected.  The 
tendency  of  the  inexperienced  teacher  and  of  many 
other  teachers  is  to  follow  the  book  exactly  as  it  is 
written,  to  present  the  tqpics  line  by  line  in  just  the 
order  given  by  the  book.  It  often  happens,  especially 
in  mathematics,  that  the  introduction  to  the  various 
units  of  instruction  must  be  made  apart  from  the  book. 
There  is  often  preparatory  work  which  must  be  done 


THE  ASSIGNMENT  117 

before  pupils  can  begin  the  work  outlined  in  the  book. 
It  is  not  infrequent  to  find  the  treatment  so  inadequate 
in  the  text  that  the  pupils  who  are  plunged  into  the 
text  and  compelled  to  gain  their  practice  from  it  en- 
tirely are  hopelessly  confused. 

A  certain  teacher  was  having  trouble  in  instructing 
her  fifth-grade  class  in  arithmetic.  They  were  studying 
multiplication  and  division  of  fractions.  The  whole 
subject  was  presented,  with  all  the  various  types  of 
problems,  in  three  pages,  and  only  twenty  problems 
were  included  for  practice.  The  teacher  had  difficulty 
in  securing  the  solution  of  four  problems  a  day  from 
the  pupils.  Most  of  these  were  vaguely  understood. 
She  finally  laid  aside  the  book  and  began  to  present 
the  work  independent  of  the  book.  She  explained  to 
the  pupils  the  simplest  type  of  problem  in  multiplica- 
tion of  fractions  and  at  once  gave  the  pupils  a  list  of 
similar  problems  to  solve.  The  pupils  solved  fifty 
problems  in  the  time  they  had  been  struggling  half- 
heartedly to  solve  four  problems.  The  teacher  then 
presented  another  step  in  the  process  and  followed  it 
with  practice  problems  with  the  results  similar  to 
those  obtained  from  the  first  step.  She  continued 
from  day  to  day  until  she  had  presented  all  the  possible 
cases  of  multiplication  and  division  of  fractions.  At 
every  stage  the  pupils  solved  the  problems  quickly, 
accurately,  and  in  great  numbers.  When  the  several 
types  of  problems  had  been  covered,  the  teacher  made 
an  assignment  from  the  book,  and  the  pupils  never 
stopped  with  the  difficulties  of  a  single  problem. 


118  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

Instances  of  this  kind  could  be  multiplied  in  great 
numbers  to  show  the  vast  difference  between  the  teacher 
who  organizes  her  work  systematically  and  logically 
and  the  teacher  who  follows  her  text  blindly.  This 
careful  adaptation  of  the  text  to  the  pupils  is  not 
confined  to  arithmetic,  but  the  need  is  apparent  in  all 
subjects  in  varying  degrees. 

The  teacher  should  study  the  spirit  of  attack 
which  is  made  by  his  class;  if  the  work  moves  slug- 
gishly, and  if  the  pupils  are  vague  in  their  statements, 
the  teacher  should  look  well  to  the  organization  of  the 
subject-matter. 

Making  the  Assignment  Definite.  The  assignment 
should  be  entirely  free  from  misinterpretation.  When 
the  pupils  leave  the  class,  every  pupil  should  know 
very  definitely  just  what  is  required  in  the  preparation 
of  the  lesson.  If  several  points  are  assigned,  the  pupils 
should  take  sufficient  notes  to  enable  them  to  follow 
the  teacher's  requirements.  The  teacher  should  never 
make  an  assignment  to  be  prepared  outside  of  the 
text  unless  he  knows  positively  that  the  information  is 
obtainable  with  the  means  at  the  command  of  the 
pupils.  He  should  never  ask  his  class  as  a  whole  to 
prepare  outside  work  unless  there  is  more  than  one 
source  from  which  the  required  knowledge  may  be 
obtained.  If  there  are  thirty  pupils  or  even  ten 
pupils  in  a  class  and  only  one  book  from  which  the 
preparation  can  be  made,  it  will  be  impossible  for  all 
or  even  a  majority  of  the  pupils  to  meet  the  require- 
ment of  the  teacher.  It  is  better  in  such  instances  to 


THE  ASSIGNMENT  119 

make  the  assignment  to  one  or  two  pupils  and  require 
them  to  give  a  report  to  the  class;  often  a  still  better 
way  is  for  the  teacher  to  make  the  preparation  and 
present  the  work  to  the  class. 

It  is  usually  unprofitable  to  ask  pupils  to  prepare  a 
point  by  inquiring  from  some  one.  Almost  all  requests 
of  •  this  f  character  spring  from  the  impulse  of  the 
moment;  the  teacher  has  not  planned  to  make  the 
assignment  in  this  manner.  It  is  rarely  true  that  the 
teacher  even  calls  for  the  point  the  succeeding  day. 
Some  teachers  get  into  the  habit  of  saying,  "Ask  your 
father."  The  father  perhaps  knows  less  about  the 
point  than  the  child  does.  The  mere  request  to  "find 
out,"  "to  look  up,"  and  "to  ask  somebody"  are  loose 
and  careless  ways  to  make  assignments.  The  teacher 
should  designate  the  very  source  and  even  the  page  of 
the  book  on  which  the  desired  information  is  to  be 
had  when  assignments  are  made  to  pupils  in  the 
elementary  school.  This  will  save  the  pupils  much 
time  and  will  prevent  inadequate  preparation. 

Length  of  the  Assignment.  It  is  very  easy  for  the 
teacher  to  underestimate  the  time  required  for  the 
pupils  to  accomplish  a  given  assignment.  The  most 
careful  and  most  experienced  teacher  blunders  seriously 
at  times  in  this  respect.  The  more  familiar  the  teacher 
becomes  with  the  subject-matter  the  more  likely  he 
is  to  underestimate  the  difficulties  of  the  learner.  The 
tendency  of  teachers  is  to  require  more  of  their  pupils 
than  they  themselves  could  do  in  the  given  time. 
The  subject-matter  is  new  to  the  pupils,  and  they  are 


120    PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

unable  to  move  along  through  the  assignment  without 
errors  and  without  the  necessity  for  delays  in  the 
preparation.  The  pupils  in  the  preparation  of  written 
work  are  expected  to  prepare  it  in  good  form;  this 
often  means  that  the  work  must  first  be  done  and 
then  rewritten.  This  requires  much  more  time  than 
to  perform  the  work.  The  teacher  will  be  greatly  sur- 
prised if  he  takes  an  assignment  of  problems  he  has 
given,  solves  them  himself,  and  then  copies  them  in 
just  as  neat  and  careful  a  manner  on  another  paper  as 
he  requires  of  his  pupils  to  hand  in  for  his  inspection. 
He  will  find  often  that  the  time  required  by  one  who 
has  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  work  to  be  performed 
is  double  that  which  he  has  allowed  his  pupils  in  which 
to  do  the  work.  An  excellent  way  to  determine  the 
amount  of  time  required  by  the  pupils  to  prepare  an 
assignment  of  this  character  is  to  hold  the  watch  and 
thus  determine  the  number  of  minutes  required  for  the 
pupils  to  accomplish  a  part  of  the  work.  From  this 
result  the  teacher  may  estimate  approximately  the 
time  required  for  the  class  to  prepare  the  whole  assign- 
ment. 

A  teacher,  a  normal  graduate  with  four  years  of 
experience,  was  daily  assigning  her  fourth-grade  class 
in  reading  twenty  words  to  look  up  in  the  dictionary. 
She  complained  to  her  superintendent  about  the  poor 
work  she  was  getting  in  reading.  He  visited  her  class 
to  study  the  matter.  The  assignment  of  twenty  words  to 
pupils  to  look  up  in  the  dictionary  and  to  write  suitable 
definitions  after  them,  seemed  to  him  a  heavy  require- 


THE  ASSIGNMENT  121 

ment  for  fourth-grade  pupils  in  addition  to  an  assign- 
ment for  preparation  in  reading.  At  his  suggestion 
the  pupils  were  timed  to  determine  the  number  of 
minutes  required  by  the  pupils  to  find  a  word  in  the 
dictionary,  get  a  suitable  meaning,  and  write  the 
definition  in  the  manner  required  by  the  teacher. 
The  average  time  was  found  to  be  two  and  one-half 
minutes  per  word.  The  teacher  was  thus  requiring 
her  pupils  to  perform  a  task  which  necessitated  fifty 
minutes,  besides  the  regular  reading  assignment.  The 
pupils  were  allowed  on  the  program  only  thirty 
minutes  in  which  to  make  their  preparation  in  reading. 

The  unreasonableness  of  the  teacher  is  sometimes 
augmented  by  adding  penalties  for  the  nonperformance 
of  assignments  like  those  given  above.  The  failure  of 
pupils  to  perform  a  given  assignment  is  a  strong  indica- 
tion under  normal  conditions  that  the  teacher's  lesson 
assignments  lack  proper  adjustment  to  the  time  for 
preparation  and  to  the  capacity  of  the  pupils.  The 
teacher  should  habitually  study  his  methods  through 
the  reaction  of  his  pupils. 

The  tendency  of  the  teacher  is  to  assign  by  pages 
or  some  other  measurable  amounts.  Some  teachers 
are  such  slaves  to  this  manner  of  assignment  that 
they  would  assign  lessons  by  the  inch  if  books  were 
printed  on  rolls  of  paper  so  that  the  ruler  could  be 
applied  conveniently.  It  is  just  as  reasonable  to  say 
"Take  twelve  inches  more  of  the[book,"  as  it  is  to  say, 
each  day,  "Take  five  more  pages."  Lessons  vary  in 
importance  and  difficulty  from  place  to  place  in  the 


122     PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

text.  The  teacher  must  take  these  variations  into 
account  when  the  assignments  are  made.  Three  pages 
of  the  text  at  one  time  may  be  a  very  large  assignment, 
while  at  another  time  ten  pages  may  require  very  little 
time  in  the  preparation.  The  assignment  should  be 
even  as  to  the  time  required  to  master  it  from  day  to 
day.  A  teacher  who  makes  an  assignment  one  day 
which  requires  only  ten  minutes  to  prepare  it,  and  the 
next  day  sets  a  task  for  the  pupil  which  requires  four 
hours  to  prepare  it  entails  a  great  loss  of  time,  energy, 
and  quality  of  work,  not  only  in  the  subject  under 
consideration,  but  in  the  other  subjects  as  well. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  a  proper  assignment  so  important  in  teaching? 
What  does  the  assignment  reveal  as  regards  the  teacher's  pro- 
fessional efficiency? 

2.  What  preparation  must  the  teacher  make  before  he  is 
able  to  make  a  proper  assignment?    Why  is  it  especially  dif- 
ficult for  an  inexperienced  teacher  to  make  a  proper  assignment? 

3.  What  preparation  must  the  pupils  have  before  an  assign- 
ment can  be  made?    To  what  extent  may  a  teacher  rely  upon 
the  explanations  usually  found  in  texts  as  a  means  of  preparing 
pupils  for  the  assignment?     Suppose   that   the  lesson   to   be 
assigned  in  arithmetic  requires  the  solution  of  problems  where  a 
knowledge  of  telling  the  time  by  the  clock  is  necessary.     Explain 
in  detail  how  the  teacher  should  proceed  under  these  conditions 
if  the  pupils  are  more  or  less  unable  to  tell  the  time  of  day. 

4.  Show  how  time  is  wasted  by  making  assignments  to 
pupils  before  they  are  properly  prepared  to  receive  them. 

5.  How  much  and  what  kind  of  aid  should  be  given  pupils 
toward  the  preparation  of  an  assignment?    What  is  the  effect 


THE  ASSIGNMENT  123 

on  a  class  if  insufficient  aid  is  given  for  the  preparation  of  an 
assigned  lesson? 

6.  How  may  pupils  be  trained  to  master  an  assignment  made 
in  the  text?     Why  do  pupils  in  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  grades 
have  trouble  in  this  respect?     How  should  the  transition  from 
oral  instruction  in  the  lower  grades  to  book  study  in  the  upper 
grades  be  made? 

7.  In  what  respect  should  the  teacher  adapt  the  text  to  the 
pupils?      Point  out  common  weaknesses  in  texts  which  render 
adaptation  necessary. 

8.  In  what  respects  should  the  assignment  be  definite?    In 
what  way  should  an  assignment  be  made  outside  of  the  text  if 
the  supply  of  reference  books  is  very  limited? 

9.  How  may  the  teacher  estimate  properly  the  length  of  the 
assignment?     Why  is  it  so  easy,  even  for  an  experienced  teacher, 
to  make  the  assignment  too  long? 

10.  What  are  some  of  the  indications  of  errors  in  the  length 
of  the  assignment?     What  should  guide  the   teacher   in  the 
length  of  the  assignment? 

11.  Discuss  the  dangers  of  gauging  the  assignment  by  pages, 
number  of  problems,  etc. 

12.  Show  how  an  improper  assignment  in  one  class  may 
affect  adversely  proper  assignments  made  in  other  classes. 


CHAPTER  IX 

EVERYDAY  PROBLEMS  IN  INSTRUCTION 

The  Question  of  Method.  Teachers  are  generally 
prone  to  place  too  much  stress  on  the  value  of  some 
particular  method  of  instruction.  There  are  often 
many  good  ways  of  accomplishing  a  given  result  in 
school.  One  frequently  finds  teachers  believing  so 
thoroughly  in  a  particular  way  of  procedure  that 
they  regard  all  other  methods  as  useless  or,  perhaps, 
harmful.  They  instruct  on  the  assumption  that  the 
method  is  perfect;  when  the  results  obtained  are  unsat- 
isfactory, they  charge  it  to  the  lack  of  capacity  in  the 
child.  It  may  be  that  the  teacher  is  successful  with 
the  given  method;  it  may  be  that  he  has  been  less 
successful  with  other  methods.  However,  the  success 
or  failure  of  a  few  teachers  with  a  certain  method  does 
not  brand  that  method  or  other  methods  as  especially 
good  or  bad.  There  is  far  more  difference  in  the  way 
methods  are  manipulated  than  there  is  in  the  methods 
themselves.  One  frequently  finds,  for  example,  in  the 
same  system  of  schools  two  or  more  primary  teachers 
instructing  pupils  to  read  by  wholly  different  methods. 
Each  of  these  teachers  claims  superior  virtues  for  the 
particular  method  she  uses.  Each  teacher  can  enu- 
merate a  long  list  of  misfortunes  which  are  sure  to 
befall  the  pupils  who  are  instructed  by  any  other 

124 


EVERYDAY  PROBLEMS  IN  INSTRUCTION  125 

method.  When  these  pupils  pass  on  to  the  upper 
grades,  there  is  no  perceptible  difference  in  their 
ability  to  read  which  can  be  traced  to  the  various 
methods  by  which  they  have  learned  to  read. 

There  is  no  method  which  teaches  itself;  almost 
any  method  yields  good  results  at  the  hand  of  its 
author  or  with  a  teacher  who  is  skillful  in  applying  it. 
The  best  method  may  prove  a  failure  in  the  hands  of  a 
weak  teacher. 

Some  Definite  Method  Needed.  Every  teacher, 
however,  should  have  a  settled  policy  of  instruction  in 
each  subject.  If  the  teacher  is  uncertain  as  to  the 
manner  of  procedure  to  be  followed  in  his  instruction, 
he  should  inform  himself  by  conferring  with  successful 
teachers  of  the  subject.  He  will  soon  discover  what 
is  the  usual  method  followed  by  recognized  teachers. 
This  is  a  safe  plan  for  the  teacher  to  adopt  until  he  can 
improve  upon  the  method  or  find  something  better. 
This  method  should  be  followed  until  the  teacher  has 
learned  to  apply  it  successfully.  By  close  observa- 
tion and  the  exercise  of  careful  judgment,  the  teacher 
will  soon  be  able  to  extend  the  application  of  the 
method  to  give  it  sufficient  variety. 

Some  Tests  of  a  Good  Method.  A  good  method 
usually  (1)  is  simple,  (2)  is  unspectacular,  and  (3)  will 
not  yield  its  best  results  in  a  day,  a  week,  or  a  month. 
It  may  be  that  the  best  method  of  procedure  does  not 
become  evident  for  two  or  three  years.  Pupils  who 
are  taught  to  write  by  the  muscular  movement  do 
not  show  skill  in  writing  at  once.  It  may  seem  a 


126  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

waste  of  time  in  the  beginning  and  even  for  many 
weeks,  but  when  the  muscles  are  properly  developed 
and  used  in  writing,  the  pupils  will  write  with  an  ease 
and  a  grace  impossible  where  pupils  laboriously  draw 
the  forms  of  the  letters  from  a  copy.  It  is  easy  to 
train  pupils  in  a  few  weeks  to  make  neat  and  well 
formed  letters;  a  good  primary  teacher  may  teach 
beginners  to  do  it  well  in  a  month  or  two,  but  the 
teacher  who  relies  upon  this  method  to  teach  writing 
in  the  upper  grades  is  doomed  to  failure. 

In  primary  reading  the  phonetic  drills  and  the 
study  of  phonograms  seems  useless  to  the  teacher  who 
has  not  traveled  the  whole  way  with  pupils  learning 
to  read;  but,  the  teacher  of  experience  who  knows  how 
to  use  these  devices  understands  that  the  most  eco- 
nomical use  of  time  results  from  a  thorough  mastery 
of  these  fundamental  principles  of  reading. 

In  music,  the  scale  and  voice  drills,  the  study  of 
the  staff,  notes,  time,  sharps  and  flats,  rests,  and  many 
other  things  may  seem  dry  and  uninteresting;  the 
pupils  and  the  teacher  would,  perhaps,  far  more  enjoy 
singing  beautiful  songs,  but  if  the  pupils  are  to  obtain 
access  to  the  great  musical  resources  of  the  race,  past, 
present,'  and  future,  they  must  become  masters  in 
some  degree  of  the  symbolism  of  music.  This  mastery 
cannot  be  acquired  without  careful  work  and  study  of 
some  features  of  the  subject  that  may  be  dry  and 
uninteresting.  Indeed,  every  subject  of  the  curriculum 
has  its  unpleasant  features,  but  they  are  necessary  and 
vital.  The  teacher  who  attempts  to  escape  this  work 


EVERYDAY  PROBLEMS  IN  INSTRUCTION  127 

pauperizes  his  pupils  educationally,  instead  of  rendering 
them  strong  and  self-supporting.  Too  often  the 
teacher  loses  his  way  and  makes  weaklings  of  his 
pupils  because  he  imagines  there  is  some  unique  or 
spectacular  process  of  teaching  some  very  common 
and  necessary  facts. 

No  method  should  be  held  to  be  sacred;  methods 
are  means  to  an  end;  they  exist  for  the  child's  interests, 
not  the  child's  interests  for  the  method.  The  teacher 
should  be  constantly  on  the  alert  for  the  results  follow- 
ing his  method;  he  should  modify  his  method  when 
the  results  following  its  application  are  unsatisfactory. 

Similarity  of  Treatment  of  Subjects.  There  is  an 
old  fable  which  relates  how  an  old  man  asked  his 
strong  sons  at  his  death  to  break  a  bundle  of  sticks. 
Each  in  turn  tried  his  strength  upon  them  without 
avail.  Finally,  the  weak  old  man  took  the  bundle 
of  sticks  and  after  untying  them,  broke  them  one  by 
one  with  ease,  to  the  chagrin  of  his  sons.  The  diffi- 
culties of  many  teachers  have  their  origin  hi  attempt- 
ing to  "break  too  many  sticks"  of  instruction  at  once. 
To  be  successful  in  instruction,  the  teacher  should 
analyze  the  subject-matter  of  instruction  into  simple 
parts  or  elements;  he  should  then  begin  with  the  one  of 
first  importance  among  these;  this  should  be  carefully 
mastered  before  the  next  is  attempted.  Just  how 
minute  the  process  of  analysis  of  the  subject  should 
be,  must  be  determined  by  the  ability  of  the  individual 
class.  A  slow  class  always  requires  a  unit  of  instruc- 
tion involving  few  elements.  The  teacher  who  is 


128  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

introducing  the  Six  Per  Cent  Method  to  a  class  in 
arithmetic,  should  not  attempt  the  whole  process  at 
the  start;  it  would  be  well,  perhaps,  to  give  a  lesson 
or  two  in  finding  the  interest  on  one  dollar  at  six  per 
cent  for  any  number  of  years  and  months;  next,  the 
teacher  should  teach  the  method  of  finding  the  interest 
on  one  dollar  for  any  number  of  years,  months,  and 
days  divisible  by  six,  at  six  per  cent.  The  final  step  in 
this  phase  of  the  subject  should  include  the  process  of 
finding  the  interest  on  one  dollar  for  any  number  of 
years,  months,  and  days  at  six  per  cent.  The  pupils 
are  now  ready  to  solve  problems  which  require  the 
interest  on  any  amount  for  any  time  at  six  per  cent. 
The  next  step  in  the  process  should  be  finding  what 
parts  of  six  other  numbers  are  which  are  commonly 
used  hi  interest.  The  pupils  will  then  be  prepared  to 
find  the  interest  on  any  sum  of  money  for  any  time 
at  any  per  cent.  If  the  several  steps  are  presented 
together,  confusion  is  inevitable. 

The  Question  of  Interest.  Much  has  been  said  by 
educators  regarding  the  need  of  interest  in  the  subject 
of  instruction.  It  is  difficult  to  overestimate  the 
importance  of  interest  in  the  process  of  learning,  but 
it  is  quite  easy  to  misunderstand  and  misapply  the 
doctrine.  Some  teachers  make  interest  synonymous 
with  entertainment;  these  teachers  think  they  have 
not  complied  with  their  pedagogical  duty  until  they 
have  amused  the  children  in  each  recitation.  This 
practice  often  degenerates  to  the  point  of  telling 
foolish  stories  or  relating  amusing  personal  expe- 


EVERYDAY  PROBLEMS  IN  INSTRUCTION  129 

riences  to  the  pupils  during  a  part  of  the  recitation 
period.  A  teacher  once  explained  her  method  of 
interesting  her  pupils  in  algebra;  with  an  air  of  supe- 
riority she  said  she  always  began  the  recitation  by 
telling  the  pupils  of  her  travels  abroad.  "I  never  fail 
to  gain  their  interest,"  she  said.  True,  perhaps,  but 
was  the  interest  in  algebra?  There  is  no  reason  why 
a  dog  fight  should  not  have  commanded  interest  in 
the  same  way,  and  could  be  justified  as  a  part  of  the 
algebra  work  as  much  as  a  discussion  of  one's  expe- 
riences abroad.  Interest  in  instruction  is  not  to  be 
confused  with  mere  amusement  or  interest  in  irrele- 
vant subjects.  It  is  impossible  and  even  undesirable 
if  it  were  possible  for  the  teacher  to  "sugar-coat"  all 
the  work  of  the  school.  There  is  some  real  work 
about  almost  everything  in  the  school,  if  the  work  is 
properly  done.  Pupils  need  some  training  in  the 
mastery  of  things  which  are  not  especially  pleasurable. 
The  sense  of  pleasure  which  comes  to  the  pupil 
because  he  finds  himself  master  of  a  difficulty  is  a 
reward  he  may  learn  to  appreciate  even  more  than 
mere  amusement  or  superficial  interest.  This  is  the 
kind  of  reward  he  must  be  satisfied  with  in  the  activi- 
ties of  life  after  school. 

Relative  Value  of  Subjects.  The  relative  value  of 
subjects  in  a  school  curriculum  is  not  so  much  a 
question  of  the  preference  of  one  subject  over  another 
as  it  is  of  the  manner  of  treatment  of  the  subjects. 
The  educational  value  of  a  subject  depends  upon  the 
manner  in  which  it  is  taught.  Much  has  been  said 


130  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

about  the  value  of  manual  training  and  domestic 
science  as  educational  material,  but  the  value  of  these 
subjects  does  not  reside  in  them  independent  of  their 
treatment.  They  must  cultivate  concentration  of 
attention,  accuracy  and  carefulness  of  thinking,  judg- 
ment and  alertness,  otherwise  as  educational  material 
they  are  useless.  Arithmetic,  grammar,  history,  or 
any  other  subject  may  be  made  to  yield  large  returns 
in  the  habits  of  thought,  application,  expression,  and 
information  if  they  are  properly  utilized  by  the 
teacher,  or  they  may  be  of  little  value  if  improperly 
used.  The  attitude  of  mind  developed  by  a  study  is 
the  matter  of  chief  concern  to  the  teacher.  Education 
is  largely  concerned  with  the  development  of  correct 
attitudes  on  the  part  of  the  pupil.  No  school  is  likely 
to  put  its  pupils  in  possession  of  sufficient  facts  to 
carry  them  far.  Mere  rules  of  procedure  and  short 
cuts  to  processes  are  of  little  value  to  the  pupil  when 
he  is  confronted  with  a  practical  problem  for  solution 
in  life.  He  has  by  that  time  either  forgotten  the  rule 
or  he  is  unable  to  adapt  the  problem  to  the  rule 
process  he  has  -learned  at  school. 

A  farmer  who  had  learned  his  arithmetic  by  rule 
spent  the  greater  part  of  the  forenoon  turning  through 
his  old  text  in  arithmetic  in  his  endeavor  to  find  the 
rule  for  the  solution  of  a  practical  problem.  He  was 
unable  to  find  the  rule  which  covered  the  case.  He 
had  sold  his  neighbor  six  acres  of  meadow,  one  side  of 
which  was  along  the  public  road.  He  wished  to  know 
how  far  he  should  measure  into  the  meadow  and  draw 


EVERYDAY  PROBLEMS  IN  INSTRUCTION  131 

a  line  parallel  to  the  road  that  he  might  include  the 
amount  sold  next  to  the  road.  The  width  of  the  field 
measured  in  the  road  was  eighty  rods.  His  problem, 
of  course,  was  to  determine  the  width  of  a  rectangle 
eighty  rods  long  whose  area  is  six  acres.  This  is  a 
simple  problem,  indeed,  but  it  shows  the  worthlessness 
of  a  process  taught  by  rule,  and  how  helpless  one  is  to 
apply  to  a  practical  problem  a  rule  which  has  been 
learned  mechanically. 

There  is  nothing  which  distinguishes  modern 
methods  of  procedure  in  and  out  of  school  more  than 
the  endeavor  in  all  the  affairs  of  life  to  discover  the 
reason  for  things.  At  every  point  in  school  we  must 
seek  to  discover  reasons  for  processes  if  our  knowledge 
is  to  be  the  most  serviceable.  The  value  of  particular 
studies  will,  therefore,  be  determined  by  the  manner 
in  which  they  are  taught  in  the  school. 

Quantity  Is  Not  Power.  Many  teachers  need  to 
realize  more  fully  that  quantity  in  school  work  is  not 
synonymous  with  power  and  proficiency.  Some 
teachers  attempt  to  make  records  in  the  amount  of 
work  done,  a  large  number  of  pages  or  books  read  by 
a  class.  It  is  not  the  number  of  pages  that  is  sig- 
nificant, but  the  kind  of  mental  qualities  developed. 
Pupils  may  read  a  single  poem  of  a  dozen  stanzas  and 
obtain  vastly  more  benefit  than  .they  would  from 
reading  three  hundred  pages  of  a  book  if  it  has  been 
done  in  a  superficial  manner.  If  the  pupils  in  a  reading 
class  do  not  get  more  than  the  bare  outline  of  a  story, 
they  are  not  greatly  benefited.  On  the  other  hand,  if 


132  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

they  are  made  to  feel  the  sentiment  of  a  selection  and 
to  experience  the  motive  of  the  author,  something  of 
value  has  been  acquired  whether  one  or  a  hundred 
pages  have  been  read.  The  pupil  who  is  trained  to 
reason  out  and  to  explain  accurately  and  logically  an 
exercise  in  arithmetic  registers  a  growth  far  greater 
than  he  would  by  solving  a  score  of  such  exercises  by 
some  "rule  of  thumb."  It  is,  perhaps,  of  some  value 
to  know  that  New  York  and  Chicago  are  the  two 
largest  cities  in  the  United  States,  but  it  is  of  vastly 
greater  importance  to  the  pupils  to  analyze  the  fact 
into  the  contributing  factors  which  have  made  them  so. 

Experience  the  Basis  of  Learning.  The  teacher's 
work  must  be  based  upon  experience.  More  books 
are  failures  in  the  school  because  of  ill  adjustment  to 
experience  than  for  any  other  reason.  More  teachers 
fail  from  their  inability  to  conform  to  the  experience 
of  the  pupils  than  from  any  other  cause.  No  book, 
perhaps,  is  perfectly  adjusted  to  the  life  experiences  of 
any  class.  The  function  of  the  teacher  is  to  make  this 
adjustment.  The  measure  of  the  teacher's  success  is 
determined  by  the  degree  to  which  he  can  make  this 
adjustment;  the  result  of  the  adjustment  is  learning. 
The  teacher  should  make  every  effort  possible  to 
supply  pictures,,  models,  and  other  illustrations  which 
will  aid  in  giving  the  pupils  the  necessary  concrete 
basis  for  interpreting  his  instruction. 

Children  of  indigent  parents  crave  the  moving- 
picture  show  because  it  furnishes  them  new  expe- 
riences. Much  of  this  experience  is  of  service  to  the 


EVERYDAY  PROBLEMS  IN  INSTRUCTION  133 

teacher.  Familiarity  with  the  outside  world  is  as 
necessary  for  the  proper  instruction  of  the  child  as  are 
books  and  pencils.  Often  children  see  nothing  of  the 
great  industrial  activities  of  the  world  in  which  they 
live,  except  through  the  moving  picture.  Often  the 
teacher  discovers  these  impressions  in  the  minds  of  his 
pupils  when  he  attempts  to  talk  to  them  about  the 
affairs  outside  of  the  school.  The  world  of  motion  and 
sound  has  until  the  advent  of  the  moving  picture  and 
the  phonograph  been  largely  lost  to  the  race.  This 
world  is  as  large  and  as  instructive  as  the  world  of  real 
objects.  It  is  possible  under  modern  conditions  to 
preserve  action  and  sound  from  age  to  age  and  to 
utilize  them  in  instruction  in  the  same  way  that  we 
now  attempt  to  use  the  model,  the  picture,  and  sculp- 
ture to  convey  to  us  conceptions  of  the  material  world. 
The  great  singers  and  other  musical  artists  will  leave 
with  succeeding  generations  the  result  of  their  great 
accomplishments  just  as  the  great  literary  minds  have 
left  us  their  thoughts  in  the  literatures  of  the  world. 
The  world  of  nature  with  all  of  its  complicated  and 
interesting  movements  of  growth,  the  life  in  the 
depths  of  the  sea,  the  secrets  and  savage  ways  of  the 
animals  of  the  jungle,  the  eruption  of  volcanoes,  the 
great  industrial  processes,  the  ceremonies  of  state, 
and  everything  that  constitutes  the  realm  of  action 
will  soon  be  at  the  command  of  the  teacher. 

The  need  of  this  experience  basis  in  instruction  is 
the  essence  of  the  principle  of  apperception.  It  is 
fundamental  to  all  learning,  At  every  point  of  in- 


134  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

struction  the  teacher  must  determine  what  particular 
experience  is  necessary  in  order  to  articulate  the  subject 
of  instruction  with  the  present  mental  content  of  the 
pupil.  The  application  of  the  principle  is  older  and 
wider  than  the  school.  One  cannot  read  an  article 
in  the  newspaper  that  does  not  make  constant  applica- 
tion of  the  principle.  The  arrangement  of  chapters  in 
a  text  and  the  arrangement  of  the  paragraphs  in  the 
chapters  must  conform  to  this  fundamental  principle. 
The  principle  is  so  general  and  so  common  in  its 
application  that  it  seems  strange  that  the  teacher 
needs  to  be  cautioned  about  neglecting  it  in  instruc- 
tion; however,  it  is  quite  widely  ignored  among 
teachers. 

Presenting  a  New  Topic.  The  teacher  should  use 
great  care  in  presenting  a  new  topic  to  the  class;  he 
should  be  clear  and  specific  in  his  explanations;  he 
should  set  out  the  salient  points  and  eliminate  non- 
essentials.  Some  teachers  include  too  much  in  their 
presentation;  this  leads  to  obscurity  and  confusion. 
The  teacher  should  be  as  commonplace  in  his  presenta- 
tion as  possible;  he  should  avoid  using  obscure  terms 
and  expressions  whose  content  can  be  understood  only 
by  special  training  in  the  subject.  The  teacher,  in  a 
word,  should  clothe  the  subject  matter  of  his  instruc- 
tion in  the  language  of  his  pupils  in  ordinary  speech. 
It  is  a  simple  matter  to  introduce  technical  terms 
after  the  nature  of  the  subject  presented  is  understood. 

Forms  and  Illustrations.  The  teacher,  especially 
of  young  children,  should  use  great  care  as  to  the 


EVERYDAY  PROBLEMS  IN  INSTRUCTION  135 

correctness  of  all  forms  placed  before  the  pupils.  It 
is  a  bad  practice  to  illustrate  how  a  thing  should  be 
by  writing  it  on  the  board  the  way  it  should  not  be. 
If  a  pupil  writes  a  word  incorrectly,  the  teacher  should 
not  repeat  the  incorrect  form  in  order  to  point  out 
the  error  to  the  pupil;  to  do  so  would  augment  the 
very  difficulty  the  teacher  wishes  to  correct.  Each 
time  an  incorrect  form  is  repeated  to  the  eye  or  ear 
the  more  strongly  the  mind  is  inclined  to  repeat  the 
incorrect  form.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  teacher 
should  pronounce  words  correctly,  use  grammatical 
language,  and  free  himself  from  other  conspicuous  faults. 

The  illustrations  the  teacher  uses  should  be  free 
from  misinterpretation.  Pupils  are  very  literal  in 
their  interpretation  of  the  teacher's  statements.  A 
certain  teacher  was  endeavoring  to  make  clear  to  her 
pupils  the  difference  between  the  use  of  t-h-e-r-e  and 
t-h-e-i-r.  She  said,  "You  use  t-h-e-i-r  when  you  own 
something."  She  then  called  for  sentences  to  illus- 
trate the  two  uses.  A  boy  raised  his  hand  and  gave 
the  following  sentence:  "T-h-e-i-r  goes  my  horse." 
He  was  greatly  disappointed  and  chagrined  to  find 
that  his  illustration  was  wrong,  although  it  seemed  to 
him  to  meet  the  requirements  stated  by  the  teacher. 

Irrelevant  Illustrations.  The  explanations  and 
illustrations  of  the  teacher  should  be  true  to  conditions. 
The  use  of  irrelevant  and  unnatural  material  confuses 
the  pupils.  Pupils  who  are  perplexed  in  reading  frac- 
tions, for  example,  are  not  helped  by  telling  them  that 
a  boy  has  two  names,  Charles  and  Smith. 


136  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

The  pupils  need  the  difficulty  explained  in  arith- 
metical terms;  any  other  explanation  is  likely  to  make 
a  false  impression  and  establish  in  the  mind  many 
erroneous  associations  of  which  the  teacher  has  little 
knowledge,  and  it  may  require  a  long  time  to  clear 
these  errors  from  the  pupil's  mind. 

The  tendency  to  place  intervening  perceptions 
between  the  mind  of  the  child  and  the  subject  is 
unpsychological,  yet  it  is  a  common  practice  with 
many  teachers.  Some  teachers  of  music  confuse  their 
pupils  by  drawing  the  keyboard  of  the  piano  above 
the  staff  in  order  to  teach  the  letters  of  the  lines  and 
spaces.  They  draw  lines  from  the  keys  to  the  corre- 
sponding letters  of  the  staff.  There  is  no  possible 
advantage  in  a  device  of  this  character  for  pupils 
studying  vocal  music,  and  who  have  not,  as  is  almost 
universally  true  in  the  early  stages  of  musical  instruc- 
tion in  the  schools,  a  knowledge  of  the  piano.  Why  a 
pupil  should  be  able  to  learn  to  associate  the  letters  of 
the  lines  and  spaces  of  the  staff  less  readily  than  he 
could  learn  to  associate  them  with  the  keys  of  the 
piano  and  then  transfer  his  associations  to  the  staff, 
is  difficult  to  comprehend. 

Testing  the  Content  of  the  Mind.  At  every  stage 
of  the  teacher's  work  he  must  exercise  great  care  to 
prevent  erroneous  conception  on  the  part  of  the  pupils. 
The  content  of  the  child  mind  is  different  from  that  of 
the  teacher,  and  for  this  reason  he  is  prone  to  interpret 
subject  matter  in  a  different  manner;  often  a  point 
will  be  so  evident  to  the  teacher  that  he  will  not  think 


EVERYDAY  PROBLEMS  IN  INSTRUCTION  137 

it  necessary  to  question  the  pupil  regarding  its  mean- 
ing, but  the  conception  of  the  pupil  may  be  quite 
absurd.  Almost  every  recitation  reveals  answers 
which  show  the  need  of  careful  questioning  to  deter- 
mine the  content  of  the  pupils'  minds  resulting  from 
the  class  instruction.  A  class  was  reading  the  poem, 
"Sing  On,  Blithe  Bird,"  by  William  Motherwell;  one 
of  the  pupils  read  the  lines: 

He  will  not  fly;  he  knows  full  well, 

While  chirping  on  that  spray, 
I  would  not  harm  him  for  the  world, 

Or  interrupt  his  lay. 

The  teacher  was  about  to  pass  the  reading  without 
questioning  concerning  the  meaning,  but  she  casually 
asked  the  question,  "What  do  you  think  is  meant  by 
'interrupt  his  lay'?"  One  of  the  best  pupils  of  the 
class  gave  his  opinion  as  follows:  "I  think  the  bird  was 
old  and  was  laying  down  on  his  nest,  and  he  did  not 
want  to  bother  him."  The  idea  of  the  bird  singing  had 
not  entered  his  mind,  and  the  use  of  laying  for  lying 
had  not  perplexed  him  in  the  least. 

On  another  occasion  the  teacher  of  an  intermediate 
class  asked  her  pupils  for  the  meaning  of  "income." 
A  little  girl  volunteered  to  define  the  word  by  using 
it  in  a  sentence.  She  said,  "Mamma  opened  the  door 
and  income  a  cat."  Illustrations  similar  to  these 
could  be  multiplied  indefinitely  by  any  teacher  of 
experience  who  has  made  it  a  practice  to  question 
pupils  about  the  meaning  of  the  subject-matter. 


138  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

The  tendency  of  children  is  to  place  greater  reality 
into  things  than  we  realize;  the  child  in  early  life  has 
not  learned  to  distinguish  between  idealities  and 
realities.  Failure  to  recognize  this  often  leads  to 
misconception  in  our  attempts  to  instruct  them.  A 
little  girl  was  living  with  her  grandparents,  who  had 
taught  her  to  say  her  prayer,  "Lay  me  down,"  at 
night;  for  some  reason  she  did  not  like  the  prayer  and 
asked  her  aunt  to  teach  her  another  prayer.  "Just 
think,"  said  she,  "if  I  should  die  before  I  wake." 
Her  aunt  gave  her  another  little  prayer,  which  closed 
by  asking  God  to  bless  mamma,  brother,  and  sister, 
grandpa  and  grandma,  and  all  of  us.  When  the 
prayer  was  finished,  the  little  girl  whispered  in  her 
aunt's  ear,  "And  what  did  God  say?"  The  same 
tendency  was  shown  by  the  pupils  in  a  certain  class 
in  studying  geography.  The  teacher  was  explaining 
to  the  pupils  the  movement  of  the  earth  around  the 
sun.  She  told  them  how  many  miles  the  earth 
traveled  on  its  course  around  the  sun  each  year;  to 
make  the  subject  real  she  figured  the,  movement  out  in 
miles  per  second,  and  told  the  pupils  that  they  were 
moving  through  space  at  the  enormous  rate  of  eighteen 
miles  per  second.  "I  should  think,"  said  one  pupil, 
"that  when  one  jumped  off  the  earth  he  would  come 
down  several  miles  away  from  the  spot  from  which  he 
jumped,  but  he  lights  in  the  same  place."  This  is  a  legiti- 
mate question  which  demands  a  satisfactory  answer. 

This  disposition  to  make  real  application  to  the 
world  about  us  is  the  quality  the  teacher  should 


EVERYDAY  PROBLEMS  IN  INSTRUCTION  139 

endeavor  to  keep  alive  and  stimulate.  Our  methods 
with  children  frequently  lead  them  to  discount  a  large 
part  of  what  we  attempt  to  teach  them,  as  fiction. 
There  is  no  class  of  pupils  so  difficult  to  instruct  as 
those  who  have  formed  the  habit  of  thinking  what  the 
teacher  says  means  something  else. 

Reality  in  Instruction.  The  teacher  should  avoid 
fanciful  and  unnatural  means  of  instruction.  There 
is  nothing  more  conducive  to  clearness  than  dealing 
with  things  as  they  are.  Some  teachers  imagine  it  is 
necessary,  especially  with  small  children,  to  weave  a 
magic  story  about  simple  truths  in  order  to  teach 
them.  Most  of  these  fanciful  creations  tend  to 
obscure  the  truth  they  are  designed  to  teach.  The 
pupils  become  confused  and  are  unable  either  to 
distinguish  what  is  true  from  what  is  fiction,  or  to 
see  the  application  of  the  artificial  tale  to  the  subject 
of  instruction.  A  teacher,  for  example,  who  wishes  to 
instruct  a  class  in  the  process  of  "borrowing"  in  arith- 
metic does  not  add  to  the  understanding  of  the  process 
by  telling  the  pupil  that  certain  families,  Browns  and 
Smiths,  live  in  houses  which  are  represented  by  the 
orders  of  units,  tens,  and  hundreds.  To  have  the  pupil 
imagine  that  he  goes  to  Smith's  house  to  borrow  an 
article  which  Smith  does  not  possess  and  must  himself 
go  to  Brown's  to  borrow  that  he  may  be  able  to  make 
the  loan,  is  to  introduce  complication  and  unreality 
where  simplicity  and  truth  should  be  employed.  A 
device  of  this  character  is  much  more  difficult  for  the 
pupil  to  comprehend  than  the  truth  is.  It  is  another 


140  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

case  of  the  "remedy  being  more  violent  than  the 
disease."  Just  what  conception  pupils  instructed  in 
this  manner  have  of  the  subject  of  subtraction,  and 
just  what  the  value  of  the  conception  could  be  in  their 
later  work,  is  difficult  to  see.  If  the  teacher  is  seeking  a 
short  cut,  or  if  he  is  seeking  interest,  he  could  not 
improve  on  the  method  of  presentation  which  shows 
the  units,  tens,  and  hundreds  as  they  are.  Teachers  of 
arithmetic  would  be  more  successful  if  they  used 
objective  material  more,  material  which  is  true  to  the 
nature  of  the  process  to  be  taught.  A  teacher  who 
uses  the  blackboard  to  illustrate  by  drawing  the 
nature  of  the  process,  never  conveys  the  accuracy  of 
impression  that  the  teacher  does  who  places  material 
things  before  the  class,  or  if  possible,  in  the  hands  of 
each  member  of  the  class.  A  teacher  who  has  diffi- 
culty in  teaching  cubic  measure,  will  find  most  of  his 
difficulties  quickly  disappearing  if  he  brings  before  his 
class  a  quantity  of  small  cubical  blocks,  and  builds  up 
the  volume  in  order  to  show  the  relation  of  the  volume 
of  a  solid  to  its  dimensions.  Real  material  should  be 
used  in  carpeting,  papering,  shingling,  insurance,  stocks 
and  bonds,  and  at  every  possible  point. 

The  use  of  real  things  is  not  confined  to  arith- 
metic. The  teacher  hi  geography,  physiology,  history, 
and  reading  will  find  an  abundance  of  opportunities  to 
make  his  work  more  nearly  true  to  life.  The  subject 
of  physiology  will  take  on  new  life  if  the  teacher  brings 
before  his  class  material  to  illustrate  many  features  of 
the  subject  which  are  mere  names  to  the  pupils.  A 


EVERYDAY  PROBLEMS  IN  INSTRUCTION  141 

pupil  who  has  not  seen  a  nerve,  a  corpuscle,  a  capillary, 
and  many  other  things  easily  shown  a  class,  neces- 
sarily has  a  vague  conception  of  them.  Physiology  is 
a  subject  intensely  real,  but  as  it  is  taught  in  many 
schools  it  is  largely  a  matter  of  words  and  imagination. 

The  author  once  examined  a  small  child  who  had 
been  in  school  nine  months.  Figures  were  written  on 
the  board  and  the  child  was  asked  to  tell  what  they 
were.  The  first  figure  was  6.  The  child  said,  "That's 
a  pig's  tail."  The  next  figures  was  4.  "That's  a 
soldier  sitting  on  a  chair."  For  2  the  answer  was,  "A 
duck  swimming  in  a  pond."  For  0  the  child  said, 
"That's  the  egg  of  the  duck."  It  was  found  that  the 
child  had  been  taught  to  make  similar  associations 
with  every  figure,  and  that  no  mention  had  been 
made  of  the  true  name  of  the  character.  A  test  on 
the  letters  of  the  alphabet  revealed  artificial  associa- 
tions with  many  of  them.  All  this  was  possible  from 
a  teacher  who  was  teaching  her  twelfth  year  of  school. 
Why  should  a  pupil  be  thus  instructed  who  is  able  to 
name  hundreds  of  objects,  actions,  and  qualities  by 
their  correct  names  without  error  and  without  injury 
to  himself? 

No  less  objectionable  are  certain  schemes  of  teach- 
ing phonics  which  lead  the  pupil  to  associate  the 
phonetic  sounds  with  animals  or  objects  which  produce 
them.  There  are  no  dumb  brutes  which  give  correct 
phonetic  sounds;  things  in  nature  cannot  be  relied 
upon  to  convey  them  to  pupils.  Any  attempt  to 
make  use  of  these  devices  onlv  leads  to  confusion.  A 


142  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

sound,  to  be  of  value,  must  be  accurate,  otherwise  it  is 
harmful.  A  comparison  of  the  illustrations  of  different 
systems  shows  that  the  sound  produced  by  the  same 
object  varies  with  the  authors  of  the  systems.  If  the 
authors  of  systems  themselves  disagree  as  to  the 
sound  to  be  associated  with  given  objects,  why  should 
the  pupils  be  expected  to  agree  on  the  proper  sound? 
The  teacher  wishes  the  pupil  to  associate  the  true 
sound  with  the  letter  without  first  calling  to  mind 
the  animal  or  other  objective  image.  There  is  nothing 
lost  by  the  teacher  in  giving  the  sound  to  the  pupils 
direct  from  her  own  lips.  In  this  manner  they  have 
learned  all  the  language  they  know. 

The  principle  here  involved  is  illustrated  by  the 
use  of  the  map  in  geography  in  a  position  contrary 
to  the  true  one.  The  incorrect  association  is  estab- 
lished, and  no  amount  of  explanation  will  correct  the 
impression.  This  point  has  been  tested  many  times 
by  teachers  who  have  been  careful  to  explain  the 
position  of  places  as  they  are,  but  who  have  left  the 
map  hanging  in  the  wrong  position. 

The  Conventional  Form.  There  is  a  tendency, 
especially  among  inexperienced  teachers,  to  introduce 
unconventional  forms  in  work.  The  pupils  them- 
selves are  prone  to  form  unconventional  habits  in  the 
lower  grades.  Any  primary  teacher  who  will  test  her 
pupils  at  the  board  on  the  manner  of  making  letters 
and  figures  will  usually  discover  many  awkward  ways 
of  making  them.  One  frequently  finds  the  pupils 
making  3's,  5's,  7's,  and  9's  from  below  upward.  Left- 


EVERYDAY  PROBLEMS  IN  INSTRUCTION  143 

handed  pupils  need  careful  supervision  to  correct  such 
awkward  habits  in  written  work. 

The  practice  in  long  division  of  marking  the 
figures  brought  down,  or  drawing  lines  from  them  to 
the  point  where  they  are  used  in  the  process  is  need- 
less, and  to  correct  the  habit  when  it  is  once  formed 
usually  requires  an  effort.  As  a  general  principle,  it  is 
well  for  the  teacher  to  avoid  the  introduction  of  prac- 
tices which  must  be  discarded.  To  call  a  word  "an 
action  word"  does  not  simplify  the  difficulty  for  the 
pupil.  Every  pupil  who  comes  to  school  uses  many 
words  more  difficult  than  the  correct  term  verb.  When 
it  is  once  used,  it  is  not  necessary  to  make  a  substitu- 
tion later.  Pupils  must  live  in  a  conventional  world 
of  custom  and  usage;  if  they  are  to  be  understood,  and 
if  they  are  to  understand  others,  they  must  conform 
in  their  use  of  symbols  to  conventional  usage. 

Learning  to  Do  by  Doing.  One  discovers  quickly 
the  inaccuracy  of  his  knowledge  as  soon  as  he  attempts 
to  put  it  into  use.  The  student  of  a  foreign  language 
may  read  quite  readily  simple  sentences  written  in  the 
language,  but  when  he  first  attempts  to  write  his  own 
thoughts  in  the  new  language,  he  discovers  at  every 
turn  his  vague  understanding  of  the  rules  governing 
the  correct  use  of  the  language.  He  must  read  and 
re-read  explanatory  sections  he  was  confident  until 
then  that  he  understood  perfectly. 

The  teacher  should  constantly  require  his  pupils  to 
put  into  practice  the  principles  and  processes  he 
teaches.  He  should  endeavor  even  in  the  early 


144  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

stages  of  his  presentation  of  new  processes  to  apply 
them  to  concrete  problems.  The  teacher  of  chemistry, 
physics,  and  mathematics  should  apply  each  principle 
as  it  is  taught  before  introducing  another.  In  the 
experimental  work  in  the  elementary  sciences,  the 
teacher  will  be  much  more  successful  if  he  will  require 
all  pupils  to  perform  personally  all  experiments. 
There  are  very  few  experiments  which  are  listed  "for 
the  instructor,"  that  cannot  be  safely  performed  by 
the  pupils  under  careful  direction.  The  pupil  who 
performs  his  own  experiment  always  has  a  better 
understanding  of  it,  although  he  may  perform  it  less 
skillfully  than  his  instructor  could.  A  teacher  instruct- 
ing a  class  in  the  use  of  quotation  marks  might,  after  a 
brief  explanation,  send  the  class  to  the  board  and 
ask  each  pupil  to  write  a  quotation  as  directed.  When 
this  is  done  and  the  punctuation  and  form  of  writing  is 
observed,  the  teacher  should  give  other  examples.  A 
few  minutes  devoted  in  this  manner  will  impress  the 
point  much  more  quickly  and  deeply  than  would  be 
possible  by  illustrations  given  by  the  teacher  to  the 
class  as  a  whole.  The  pupil  who  is  required  to  execute 
a  process  must  give  it  stronger  attention  than  one 
who  is  a  mere  listener;  the  pupil  who  executes  has 
a  motor  association  with  the  subject  of  instruction. 
These  two  elements  in  instruction  are  as  important  to 
the  teacher  as  the  auditory  and  the  visual  senses, 
yet  many  teachers  are  prone  to  disregard  them. 
The  teacher  of  arithmetic,  algebra,  or  geometry  may 
often  clear  up  vague  impressions  resulting  from 


EVERYDAY  PROBLEMS  IN  INSTRUCTION  145 

explanations  of  new  processes  by  sending  the  pupils 
to  the  board  and  putting  them  to  work  at  the  kind  of 
problems  he  has  been  explaining.  The  first  solution 
or  two  will  likely  be  slow  for  many  of  the  class,  but 
the  principles  of  the  process  will  be  grasped  quickly 
as  the  application  is  made,  and  soon  the  class  works 
rapidly.  Fifteen  minutes  spent  in  this  manner  in  the 
recitation  under  the  supervision  of  the  teacher,  where 
each  pupil  is  at  liberty  to  ask  concerning  the  particular 
point  that  troubles  him,  will  save  many  times  the 
number  of  minutes  the  pupil  will  waste  in  aimless  study 
of  the  assignment;  besides,  much  time  will  be  saved 
that  would  be  required  to  clear  up  difficulties  at  the 
recitation  on  the  subsequent  day. 

Developing  from  the  Class.  Some  teachers  are 
overcautious  about  telling  pupils  anything,  because 
they  think  to  do  so  violates  a  sacred  principle  of 
pedagogy.  Rather  than  do  this  they  resort  to  long, 
roundabout,  fatiguing  processes  of  development  of  a 
point  which  should  be  explained  as  clearly  and  briefly  as 
possible.  There  are  some  points  in  instruction  which 
do  not  lend  themselves  readily  to  the  developing 
process.  The  teacher  must  be  keen  enough  in  his 
judgment  to  determine  these.  It  may  be  impossible 
with  the  knowledge  in  possession  of  pupils  at  certain 
stages  of  their  progress  to  develop  to  advantage  a 
desired  point.  In  such  cases,  the  teacher  should  tell 
his  pupils  the  point  rather  than  waste  time  which 
may  be  more  profitably  used  in  other  ways.  A 
teacher  in  the  early  stages  of  word  development  in  her 


146  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

primary  class  often  stops  to  develop  an  exceptional 
word  and  thus  uses  much  valuable  time  which  should 
be  spent  in  reading.  To  spend  five  of  the  twenty 
minutes  of  a  reading  period  in  order  that  one  pupil 
might  be  able  to  pronounce  a  word  without  being  told, 
and  when  this  expensive  process  would  likely  be 
required  again  in  fifteen  minutes  for  the  same  pupil 
to  call  the  word,  is  certainly  not  an  economic  use  of 
the  recitation  time.  These  processes  of  "develop- 
ment" often  take  the  form  of  guessing.  A  pupil,  for 
example,  is  unable  to  recognize  WAGON.  The  teacher 
says,  "What  does  your  father's  horse  pull?"  If  it  is 
winter,  the  pupil  will  likely  answer,  "Sleigh."  "What 
else?"  asks  the  teacher.  "A  buggy,"  responds  the 
pupil.  The  third  guess  is  likely  to  be  correct.  When 
the  process  of  development  is  used,  the  teacher  often 
errs  by  supposing  that  he  has  developed  a  point  from 
the  class  when  he  has  succeeded  in  getting  the  correct 
answer  from  only  one  or  two  pupils  of  the  class.  It  is 
certainly  very  little  better  for  one  pupil  of  the  class  to 
tell  all  the  others  the  point  than  it  is  for  the  teacher  to 
tell  the,  whole  class.  The  teacher  should  watch  his  class 
carefully,  and  so  present  the  subject-matter  that  the 
class  as  a  unit  may  follow  the  instruction.  The 
teacher  may  easily  train  his  pupils  to  raise  hands 
when  the  point  is  understood,  and  only  when  it  is 
understood.  He  can  estimate  thus  his  own  degree  of 
success  in  his  instruction,  and  he  can  add  to  his 
presentation  until  he  has  made  the  point  clear  to  the 
class  as  a  whole. 


EVERYDAY  PROBLEMS  IN  INSTRUCTION  147 

It  is  easy  for  the  teacher  in  developing  a  point 
to  fall  into  a  mechanical  habit  of  asking,  "How  many 
see?"  "How  many  understand?"  The  pupils  soon 
acquire  the  habit  of  raising  their  hands  after  each  of 
these  stereotyped  questions,  although  they  have  under- 
stood nothing.  The  teacher  should  verify  what  the 
pupils  "see"  and  "understand"  by  calling  for  state- 
ments of  the  point  of  the  presentation.  Pupils  should 
be  trained  to  withhold  acknowledging  they  understand 
an  explanation  when  they  do  not.  The  teacher  needs 
to  cultivate  great  patience  in  his  explanations;  he 
should  never  show  irritation  if  asked  again  and  again 
by  the  slower  members  of  the  class  for  enlightenment. 
His  response  should  always  be  cheerful  to  these  requests. 
If  there  are  some  who  have  unusual  difficulty,  he 
should  give  them  a  few  minutes  outside  of  the 
class  time.  There  is  nothing  more  deadening  to 
a  pupil's  progress  in  school  than  to  fall  into  the  care- 
less habit  of  passing  over  topics  with  a  vague  under- 
standing of  them.  This  indifferent  attitude  often 
characterizes  pupils  in  their  relations  outside  of  the 
classroom. 

Concert  Work.  There  is  a  strong  tendency  among 
beginning  teachers  to  resort  to  concert  responses.  The 
pupils  seem  to  do  better,  but  the  appearance  is  decep- 
tive. The  close  observer  soon  discovers  that  most  of 
the  pupils  are  mere  repeaters  all  the  time  and  that  all 
the  pupils  are  repeaters  some  of  the  time.  Pupils 
may  become  so  quick  in  their  response  that  the  class 
seems  to  respond  as  a  unit. 


148  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

There  is  no  place  where  concert  work  is  more 
deceptive  than  it  is  in  music,  where  it  seems  indis- 
pensable. Without  occasionally  testing  the  pupils 
individually  many  pupils  will  often  pass  through  one 
and  sometimes  several  grades  without  knowing  the 
simplest  facts  of  the  rudiments.  It  often  happens, 
too,  that  they  participate  in  the  music  exercise,  singing 
both  syllables  and  words,  but  their  response  is  entirely 
reflected  from  their  classmates.  If  the  teacher  requires 
these  pupils  to  turn  to  a  new  selection,  he  will  find 
them  unable  to  recognize  the  key,  and  they  will  be 
unable  either  to  name  or  sing  the  syllables. 

In  concert  drills  pupils  may  be  led  to  make  the 
most  ridiculous  statements  when  the  leader  for  one 
cause  or  another  makes  a  mistake.  It  is  evident  that 
there  is  no  value  in  an  exercise  which  is  devoid  of  all 
thinking. 

It  is  true  that  not  all  concert  work  is  of  this 
character;  it  may  often  be  used  to  advantage  by  the 
teacher,  but  the  teacher  must  use  extreme  care  to 
avoid  its  objectionable  features.  If  it  is  necessary  to 
resort  to  concert  work,  the  pupils  should  be  given 
individual  drills  to  see  that  no  pupil  is  becoming  a 
mere  repeater. 

Certain  kinds  of  board  work  may  be  classed  as 
concert  work;  the  evils  here  assume  a  new  form — 
copying.  When  a  whole  class  is  sent  to  the  board,  and 
all  are  given  the  same  problem  or  other  exercise,  there 
is  likely  to  be  much  copying.  This  is  frequently  done 
so  slyly  that  the  most  experienced  teacher  cannot 


EVERYDAY  PROBLEMS  IN  INSTRUCTION  149 

detect  it.  Those  who  copy  all  of  the  neighbor's  work 
are  usually  detected,  but  there  are  those  who  copy 
the  especially  difficult  parts — the  very  parts  they 
should  not  copy.  It  is  usually  best  to  divide  the  class 
into  small  groups  by  requiring  the  pupils  to  number  up 
to  three,  or  some  other  number,  as  they  stand  around 
the  board.  This  plan  separates  pupils  who  have 
similar  problems,  and  thus  renders  copying  difficult  or 
impossible. 

Proper  Direction  vs.  Driving.  It  is  difficult  to 
make  progress  in  school  when  it  is  necessary  to  drive 
pupils  to  their  tasks.  The  teacher  whose  pupils  are 
habitually  unprepared  for  their  class  work  should  look 
at  once  to  himself.  The  tendency  of  most  teachers  is 
to  attribute  poor  lessons  to  lack  of  study,  waste  of 
time,  or  mischief  on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  The 
evidence  may  be  sufficient  to  convict  the  pupils  on 
these  charges,  but  the  teacher  who  studies  the 
situation  carefully  and  scientifically  will  often  discover 
that  lack  of  study,  waste  of  time,  and  idleness  are  not 
causes  in  themselves,  but  they  are  results  which 
follow  naturally  from  poor  instruction — instruction 
not  in  accord  with  the  aptitudes  and  disposition  of 
pupils  of  that  particular  age.  A  little  different  method 
of  attack,  a  little  change  in  the  manner  of  preparation 
required  may  accomplish  in  a  day  what  would  be 
impossible  by  careful  spying  for  idlers,  threats,  and 
punishments.  It  is  a  good  practice  to  delay  accusa- 
tions against  the  pupils  until  the  teacher  has  made  a 
very  careful  study  of  himself,  and  has  changed  his 


.150  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

methods  and  requirements  frequently  in  his  attempt 
to  locate  the  cause  of  the  trouble.  It  may  be  taken 
as  a  pretty  safe  conclusion  that  pupils  will  prepare 
lessons  to  the  teacher's  entire  satisfaction  if  he  makes 
the  proper  adjustment  of  the  work  to  their  needs. 

An  inexperienced  teacher  had  trouble  with  her 
third-grade  class  in  spelling.  She  said  they  were  the 
laziest  pupils  and  the  worst  shirkers  that  could  be  found. 
They  missed  more  than  half  of  the  words  in  each 
lesson,  and  it  was  necessary  to  detain  them  after  school 
to  have  the  lesson  properly  prepared.  She  was  on  the 
point  of  using  the  strap  on  some  of  the  worst  "shirkers" 
when  she  spoke  to  her  superintendent  about  the 
matter.  He  questioned  her  about  the  amount  of  the 
assignment,  how  the  lesson  was  studied  in  preparation, 
and  the  time  devoted  to  the  preparation.  He  dis- 
covered that  the  teacher  told  the  pupils  to  "take  ten 
words"  and  then  waited  until  the  class  study  was 
about  over,  and  then  merely  pronounced  the  words. 
The  teacher  was  advised  to  go  over  the  lesson  with 
the  pupils  when  the  assignment  was  made,  have  them 
spell  aloud  each  word,  test  each  pupil's  ability  to 
pronounce  the  words  of  the  lesson,  and  to  require  the 
pupils  to  spend  a  part  of  the  study  period  writing  the 
words  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher.  The  sugges- 
tion was  adopted,  and  the  difficulty  disappeared  at 
once.  There  were  very  few  words  missed  the  rest  of 
the  twenty-nine  weeks  of  school.  Many  of  the  pupils 
had  missed  words  because  they  had  studied  mere 
letters  without  knowing  the  words  they  spelled.  A 


EVERYDAY  PROBLEMS  IN  INSTRUCTION  151 

large  part  of  the  difficulty  encountered  by  many 
teachers  of  spelling  in  the  early  years  arises  from  the 
pupils  not  knowing  the  pronunciation  of  the  words 
assigned.  Other  pupils  do  not  "see  straight."  The 
definite  order  of  the  letters  in  the  words  is  not  clearly 
established.  If  the  words  are  carefully  written  at  the 
beginning  of  the  lesson  under  the  direction  of  the 
teacher,  a  large  part  of  the  difficulty  from  this  source 
will  disappear.  The  teacher  should  then  require  the 
pupils  to  spell  over  and  over  again  the  difficult  words 
of  each  lesson  at  different  times.  He  should  be 
careful  to  master  each  lesson  well  because  this  is  a  good 
way  to  acquire  a  capacity  for  spelling.  Brain  cells 
grow  with  exercise  in  a  given  direction. 

Liking  the  Subject.  Every  superintendent  has 
observed  that  subjects  vary  in  their  degree  of  popu- 
larity among  pupils  with  the  character  of  the  instruc- 
tion. It  may  be  that  a  teacher  always  has  hard- 
working and  enthusiastic  pupils  in  some  study,  but 
has  study-haters  in  other  studies.  In  the  former  the 
pupils  are  always  prepared  and  are  anxious  to  recite;  it 
is  never  necessary  to  scold  them;  and  the  class  work 
is  a  joy  for  both  teacher  and  pupils;  they  are  glad 
when  the  recitation  is  called  and  are  sorry  when  it  is 
concluded;  the  poorest  pupil  in  the  class  shows  interest. 
In  the  latter,  on  the  other  hand,  all  these  conditions 
are  changed,  often  with  the  same  pupils.  The  teacher 
must  drive  the  pupils  to  their  tasks;  they  dislike  the 
study;  they  go  to  the  class  as  a  mere  matter  of  duty 
and  recite  in  the  same  spirit.  They  are  glad  when  the 


152  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

recitation  is  over,  and  rejoice  at  the  close  of  the 
semester  or  at  the  end  of  the  year.  A  teacher  who 
has  a  class  of  the  latter  type  should  make  all  haste  to 
find  a  teacher  who  knows  how — because  there  are 
many  who  do  know — to  lead  classes  in  that  particular 
.study  so  that  all  of  the  former  attributes  will  be 
characteristic  of  the  class.  A  teacher  who  knows  how 
to  stimulate  interest  and  application  in  a  study  should 
be  slow  to  adopt  recommended  "methods"  of  other 
teachers,  unless  he  knows  from  actual  observation  that 
such  teachers  are  accomplishing  results  superior  to 
those  which  characterize  his  own  work. 

If  one  should  go  about  from  school  to  school,  and 
if  he  could  choose  teachers  who  are  uniformly  successful 
in  inspiring  pupils  in  the  various  studies  of  the  cur- 
riculum, and  if  these  teachers  so  selected  were  placed 
in  the  same  school  so  that  each  teacher  did  the  thing 
she  knew  how  to  do,  scoldings,  keeping  in,  dislike  of 
studies,  and  failures  would  largely  disappear. 

Variation  in  Aptitudes.  From  what  has  been  said 
above,  we  should  not  overlook  the  fact  that  pupils 
differ  in  their  natural  ability  for  given  branches  of 
study.  Some  pupils,  for  example,  find  mathematics 
exceedingly  difficult  while  other  pupils  may  find  it 
quite  easy.  Under  these  circumstances  pupils  will 
tend  to  like  or  dislike  the  study  regardless  of  the 
quality  of  the  teaching.  If  often  happens  that 
members  of  the  same  family  are  strong  or  weak  in 
certain  studies.  One  may  find  natural  ability  in 
Latin,  science,  art,  history,  or  other  lines  where  he 


EVERYDAY  PROBLEMS  IN  INSTRUCTION  153 

least  expects  to  find  it.     But  these  cases  are  by  no 
means  general,  and  may  be  regarded  as  exceptions. 

Studying  the  Individual.  The  teacher  should 
study  the  needs  of  individual  pupils.  In  some  classes 
there  are  pupils  who  must  be  treated  differently  from 
the  rank  and  file  of  the  class,  if  they  are  to  keep  pace 
with  their  classes  or  even  make  satisfactory  progress. 
In  large  systems  of  schools  some  of  these  pupils  may 
be  provided  for  in  special  classes,  but  under  the  most 
favorable  conditions  some  pupils  must  have  individual 
instruction.  It  is  surprising  how  many  pupils  may  be 
kept  up  to  grade  by  a  few  minutes  of  individual 
instruction,  who  might  otherwise  fail.  If  a  teacher 
has  a  pupil  who  is  careless  and  inaccurate  in  written 
work,  and  if  the  pupil  because  of  this  habit  misses 
words  in  spelling,  or  makes  many  errors  in  his  written 
work,  he  should  supervise  for  a  few  minutes  each  day 
some  written  work  required  of  the  pupil.  A  good  way 
to  do  this  is  to  send  the  pupil  to  the  board  and  require 
him  to  write  the  work  as  the  teacher  may  direct. 
The  teacher  should  insist  on  carefulness  and  accuracy, 
requiring  the  pupil  to  repeat  again  and  again  the 
preparation  of  the  task  until  it  is  satisfactory. 

A  child  who  has  special  difficulty  in  comprehending 
an  explanation  should  be  given  aid  outside  of  the  class 
time.  The  explanation  of  the  difficulty  should  be 
more  detailed  than  is  necessary  in  the  regular  class. 

Qualities  Better  than  Knowledge.  The  supreme 
object  of  the  school  is  not  to  enable  pupils  to  pass 
examinations,  but  to  fit  them  to  live  useful  lives. 


154  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

These  qualities  may  not  be  synonymous  with  the 
mastery  of  subject-matter  of  instruction.  Perhaps 
nine-tenths  of  our  mothers  would  be  pronounced 
miserable  failures  by  some  standards  of  "measurement" 
or  schemes  of  standardization  set  by  some  examining 
boards.  But  they  had  mastered,  notwithstanding,  the 
principles  of  right  living.  The  school  should  cultivate 
sincerity  and  honesty  of  character  and  those  stable 
attributes  of  personality  which  are  the  mainstay  of 
good  citizenship.  Some  of  the  practices  one  sees  in 
vogue  in  some  schools  under  the  name  of  politeness 
and  moral  training  seem  well  suited  to  training  children 
in  hypocrisy.  Schooling  children  to  perform  mechani- 
cally certain  acts  of  moral  gymnastics  is  not  training 
them  morally.  Teaching  a  child  to  respond  naturally 
and  in  accordance  with  his  best  judgment  is  of  more 
value  than  the  parrot  repetition  of  moral  codes  and 
forms. 

Beautiful  but  Useless.  The  teacher  must  dis- 
criminate closely  between  values  in  the  things  he 
teaches.  Some  things  are  attractive,  even  beautiful, 
which  are  of  no  consequence.  It  is  not  sufficient  that 
a  thing  be  interesting;  it  is  not  sufficient  that  the 
teacher  have  special  skill  in  teaching  it;  the  test  of 
its  worth  is  its  value  to  the  pupils.  Teachers  are 
prone  to  introduce  into  their  schools  the  things  that 
appeal  to  them,  with  no  thought  of  its  value  to  the 
pupils.  In  a  certain  school  the  teacher  was  an  expert 
at  printing  with  a  pen.  She  taught  all  her  pupils  to 
print;  they  spent  thirty  minutes  each  day  laboriously 


EVERYDAY  PROBLEMS  IN  INSTRUCTION  155 

printing  poetry  or  paragraphs  from  their  readers.  It 
is  difficult  for  one  to  see  of  what  value  such  an  acquisi- 
tion would  be  to  the  rank  and  file  of  pupils.  The 
time  could  certainly  have  been  spent  at  something 
more  profitable. 

In  two  small  villages  within  ten  miles  of  each 
other  one  of  the  superintendents  traveled  abroad;  he 
forthwith  proceeded  to  introduce  French  into  his  course 
of  study.  The  other  superintendent  had  interests  in 
southern  Texas  and  spent  his  summers  there  mingling 
with  persons  who  spoke  Spanish;  he  proceeded  to 
introduce  into  his  course  work  in  Spanish.  In  an 
agricultural  community  so  small  that  it  is  difficult  to 
teach  more  than  three  years'  work  in  the  high  school 
one  can  hardly  justify  the  introduction  of  French  and 
Spanish.  These  illustrations  show  to  what  extent  the 
teacher  may  introduce  into  the  school  his  own  needs 
and  desires  instead  of  being  controlled  by  the  needs 
of  the  pupils  for  whose  instruction  he  receives  compen- 
sation. 

Form  Does  Not  Determine  Substance.  The  mere 
repetition  of  forms  must  not  blind  the  teacher  to 
actual  results.  Using  the  forms  employed  by  a 
successful  teacher  does  not  insure  his  results.  It  is  a 
mistaken  notion  many  teachers  have  that  all  they 
need  is  to  see  a  successful  teacher  at  work  and  adopt 
his  forms.  A  teacher  in  a  certain  school  thought  she 
was  teaching  her  pupils  the  muscular  movement.  She 
had  her  pupils  begin  the  writing  exercise  by  giving 
them  certain  directions,  which  were  good  if  followed. 


156  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

She  then  started  by  repeating  "up  and  down,  up  and 
down,  push,  push,  push;  from  the  shoulder,  from  the 
shoulder,  push,  push,  push,"  etc.  It  was  evident  to 
the  initiated  that  she  had  been  under  the  tuition  of  one 
of  Palmer's  experts  for  a  few  lessons.  She  was  laboring 
then  and  had  been  from  September  to  April  under  the 
impression  that  she  was  teaching  the  Palmer  system 
of  writing.  Less  than  one-third  of  the  pupils  had 
anything  that  resembled  remotely  muscular  move- 
ment. Short  pencils  were  being  used  by  several  pupils 
in  the  class.  All  the  evils  of  finger  writing  were  to 
be  found  there. 

Holding  What  Is  Taught.  It  is  one  thing  to  teach 
a  subject,  and  another  matter  to  keep  it  fresh  in  the 
minds  of  the  pupils  until  the  impressions  become 
sufficiently  rooted  to  afford  them  a  working  knowledge 
of  the  subject  taught.  For  this  reason  the  teacher 
needs  to  call  up  again  and  again  topics  which  have 
been  previously  studied.  Repeated  application  of  the 
salient  points  will  fix  them  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  use  frequently  a  part  of  the  recita- 
tion period  for  this  purpose.  If  the  teacher  prefers,  he 
can  employ  the  whole  recitation  period  at  regular 
intervals  for  this  "polishing"  process.  One  period 
devoted  to  this  purpose  every  two  weeks  would  make 
a  vast  difference  in  the  retentive  powers  of  the  pupils. 
This  is  an  excellent  manner  in  which  to  dispose  of 
odds  and  ends  of  time  near  the  close  of  a  recitation 
period  when  everything  has  gone  unusually  well.  The 
teacher  of  mathematics  who  gives  his  pupils  frequent 


EVERYDAY  PROBLEMS  IN  INSTRUCTION  157 

practice  on  the  work  passed  over  has  little  difficulty 
about  making  application  of  old  knowledge  when  new 
topics  are  presented.  It  is  a  law  of  nature  that  disuse 
leads  to  weakness  and  decay.  A  principle  once 
learned  should  be  put  into  practice  and  kept  in  prac- 
tice in  proportion  to  its  importance.  If  a  principle  is 
taught  and  then  neglected,  the  early  impression  grows 
obscure,  and  the  pupils  soon  become  unable  to  apply 
what  but  a  few  weeks  since  was  very  clear  to  them. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  To  what  extent  is  the  teacher  responsible  for  the  success 
or  failure  of  a  given  method  of  instruction?    Discuss  the  virtues 
and  the  faults  of  three  typical  methods  used  in  teaching  pupils 
to  read. 

2.  Why  should  the  teacher  have  some  definite  method  of 
instruction  in  each  subject? 

3.  What  are  some  of  the  tests  of  a  good  method?     Give 
illustrations  of  good  methods  of  instruction  in  penmanship, 
reading,  and  music. 

4.  Show  that  successful  instruction  requires  a  careful  analy- 
sis of  the  unit  of  instruction  into  its  simple  elements.     Illustrate 
this  with  the  Six  Per  Cent  Method.     Give  from  arithmetic  two 
other  illustrations  of  this  method  of  presenting  a  new  topic. 

5.  Discriminate     between     interest     and     entertainment. 
What  is  the  objection  to  irrelevant  interest? 

6.  Upon   what  does  the  educational  value  of  a  subject 
depend?     Illustrate  this  by  examples  taken  from  the  several 
subjects  of  the  curriculum. 

7.  Show  that  quantity  is  not  synonymous  with  power  and 
proficiency.     Give    illustrations    of    this    point    from    reading, 
arithmetic,  geography,  history,  and  music. 

8.  Show  that  successful  teaching  must  be  based  upon  the 
experiences  of  the  pupils.    Why  are  some  textbooks  difficult  to 


158  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

understand?     Why  does  group  instruction  render  it  difficult  to 
write  a  text  that  is  perfectly  adapted  to  a  class? 

9.  Show  the  place  of  pictures,  models,  and  illustrations  in 
teaching.     At  what  disadvantage  is  the  child  of  indigent  parents? 

10.  What  is  the  special  value  of  the  moving  picture  and  the 
phonograph  in  teaching? 

11.  What  caution  does  the  teacher  need  to  exercise  in  pre- 
senting a  new  topic? 

12.  Show  the  importance  of  keeping  correct  forms  and  illus- 
trations before  the  pupils. 

13.  Point  out  the  danger  in  the  use  of  irrelevant  illustrations. 

14.  What  is  meant  by  "intervening  perceptions"?     What 
disadvantage  arises  from  using  them? 

15.  Illustrate  fully  the  necessity  of  testing  the  pupils  regard- 
ing their  understanding  of  the  lesson. 

16.  Why  should  the  teacher  make  his  instruction  conform  to 
reality?     Show  how  this  is  frequently  violated.     Illustrate  the 
difference  in  the  use  of  the  concrete  and  the  abstract  in  arithmetic, 
history,  geography,  and  physiology. 

17.  Discuss  the  importance  of  conformity  to  conventional 
form  in  teaching.     Give  illustrations  to  show  the  need  of  fre- 
quent testing  of  pupils  regarding  their  conformity  to  convention. 

18.  Give  three  or  four  examples  from  the  chief  subjects 
taught  in  school  to  show  how  the  principle,  "Learning  to  do  by 
doing,"  may  be  applied. 

19.  Show  under  what  circumstances  a  teacher  often  wastes 
time  in  attempting  to  develop  processes  in  the  recitation.     Illus- 
trate some  of  the  faulty  and  worthless  methods  of  development 
used  by  teachers.     How  may  the  teacher  know  that  the  class, 
instead  of  a  few  pupils,  are  following  his  attempt  to  instruct  by 
the  process  of  development? 

20.  What  are  the  objections  to  concert  work?     Mention 
two  or  three  kinds  of  concert  work  commonly  seen  in  a  school. 

21.  Show  the  difference  between  driving  and  directing  in 
teaching.     To  what  extent  are  idleness  and  faulty  teaching 
related? 


EVERYDAY  PROBLEMS  IN  INSTRUCTION  159 

22.  Show  how  the  character  of  the  instruction  determines  the 
attitude  of  the  pupils  toward  a  subject.     To  what  extent  do 
you  think  failures  are  due  to  unskillful  teaching? 

23.  Illustrate  the  differences  in  aptitudes  of  pupils. 

24.  In  what  way  should  the  teacher  attempt  to  reach  special 
pupils  of  the  class? 

25.  Mention  some  qualities  in  a  school  that  are  better  than 
knowledge. 

26.  Give  some  tests  of  the  value  of  the  subject  of  instruction. 
How  does  the  special  interest  of  the  teacher  often  influence  the 
subject-matter  of  instruction? 

27.  Show  how  a  teacher  may  have  the  form  of  a  method 
but  not  its  content. 

28.  How  may  the  teacher  assist  pupils  in  the  power  of  reten- 
tion?   Illustrate  how  the  odds  and  ends  of  time  may  be  pro- 
fitably used. 


CHAPTER  X 

CONDUCTING  THE  RECITATION 

Purpose  of  the  Recitation.  The  recitation  serves 
many  purposes  in  the  school  if  it  is  utilized  to  the 
fullest  extent.  It  is  unfortunate  that  it  serves  only 
one  purpose  in  many  schools — to  hear  pupils  recite. 
The  amount  and  the  quality  of  the  work  done  in  a 
school  is,  for  the  most  part,  determined  by  the  char- 
acter of  the  work  done  from  day  to  day  in  the  recita- 
tion. At  this  time  the  teacher  presents  new  subject- 
matter  to  the  pupils;  he  knits  together  the  separate 
topics  of  instruction  into  systematic  structures;  he 
determines  the  character  of  the  progress  of  each 
individual  pupil;  he  stimulates  the  faltering  pupils;  he 
eradicates  error  before  it  becomes  deeply  rooted;  and 
he  establishes  an  exchange  and  a  clearing  house  where 
the  needs  of  each  pupil  may  be  promptly  met. 

Recitation  Should  Have  a  Plan.  If  the  recitation  is 
to  serve  its  purposes,  it  must  have  a  definite  plan;  the 
plan  and  purpose  for  each  day  must  be  carefully 
arranged  by  the  teacher.  The  beginning  teacher  finds 
it  necessary  to  give  a  great  deal  of  time  to  lesson- 
planning,  and  the  experienced  teacher  is  required  to 
adapt  old  plans  to  new  classes.  Without  a  plan  the 
recitation  is  left  to  chance;  it  turns  this  way  and  that 
instead  of  moving  toward  a  definite  goal.  In  such  a 

160 


CONDUCTING  THE  RECITATION          161 

recitation  small  questions  or  mere  incidents  turn  the 
current  of  thought  into  foreign  channels  and  waste 
the  time.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  recitation 
cannot  be  left  to  the  pupils  for  guidance.  They  do 
not  have  the  necessary  perspective  of  the  subject,  and 
to  be  a  skilled  teacher  without  knowledge  is  unthink- 
able. The  plan  of  the  recitation  should  be  in  evidence 
from  the  very  beginning;  it  is  usually  a  bad  indication 
to  see  a  teacher  begin  a  recitation  with  the  question, 
"Children,  what  would  you  like  to  do  today?"  (On 
one  occasion,  when  this  question  was  asked,  a  little 
boy  turned  to  another  and  said,  "Let's  you  and  me 
fight!")  The  absurdity  of  this  mode  of  procedure  is 
apparent  when  we  think  that  a  child  on  the  impulse  of 
the  moment  is  entrusted  with  the  important  task  of 
designating  offhand  what  course  the  recitation  should 
follow.  The  choice,  when  it  is  made,  is  rarely  more 
than  the  desire  of  one  or  two  pupils.  The  pupil  who 
makes  the  selection  is  not  often  the  one  who  needs 
special  opportunity  for  self-expression.  The  motives 
which  prompt  pupils  to  choose  certain  selections  in 
preference  to  others  are  not  those  which  should  guide 
the  teacher  in  his  direction  of  the  recitation.  One 
pupil  may  make  a  certain  choice  in  order  to  be  the 
first  to  choose;  another  may  make  ' 'going  to  the 
board"  the  basis  of  his  selection.  Selections  are  often 
made  because  they  are  easy.  It  is  seldom  that  pupils 
choose  things  upon  which  they  need  special  drill.  The 
choice  is  very  frequently  the  kind  of  exercise  least 
needed  by  any  member  of  the  class. 


162  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

Older  pupils  frequently  take  advantage  of  the 
teacher  who  attempts  to  conduct  his  recitation  without 
definite  plans,  by  asking  questions  designed  to  lead  the 
teacher  away  from  the  assigned  lesson.  The  pupils 
for  some  reason  are  not  prepared  and  they  seek  to 
shield  their  ignorance  by  directing  the  attention  of  the 
teacher  to  other  things.  They  know  the  teacher's 
failing;  when  the  recitation  begins,  they  lead  him  off 
on  an  excursion  and  flatter  him  with  an  assumed 
interest  while  he  elaborates  some  point  entirely  remote 
from  the  subject  of  study. 

Springing  Surprises.  The  pupils  should  know  the 
plan  of  the  recitation  at  the  time  the  lesson  is  assigned. 
They  should  know  definitely  what  preparation  is 
necessary  to  prepare  the  lesson  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  recitation  the  following  day.  If  the 
teacher  finds  his  pupils  unprepared  on  the  salient 
points  of  the  lesson  because  they  have  devoted  their 
time  to  minor  features  in  the  assignment,  there  has 
been  some  mistake  on  his  part  in  planning  the  recita- 
tion. It  is  disappointing  to  pupils  to  prepare  a  lesson 
and  find,  when  the  recitation  is  called,  that  the  points 
studied  are  of  little  importance.  Some  teachers  inten- 
tionally conceal  the  subtle  points  of  the  lesson  when 
it  is  assigned  in  order  to  spring  them  as  surprises  the 
next  day.  The  function  of  the  teacher  does  not  lie 
in  concealing  difficulties  but  in  revealing  the  place  of 
their  existence. 

Use  of  the  Text  in  the  Recitation.  The  organiza- 
tion of  the  recitation  renders  it  difficult  to  use  the 


CONDUCTING  THE  RECITATION          163 

average  text  in  exactly  the  order  in  which  the  matter 
is  presented  for  the  recitation.  The  text  of  necessity 
must  present  the  subject-matter  in  detail  in  order  to 
develop  general  principles  and  larger  conceptions  of 
the  topics  treated.  The  teacher  must  have  this 
larger  view  of  the  lesson  before  he  can  conduct  the 
recitation  to  advantage.  He  should,  if  possible, 
master  the  lesson  in  the  text  so  well  before  the  recita- 
tion is  called,  that  he  can  direct  the  lesson  without 
reference  to  the  text.  If  the  teacher  is  unfamiliar 
with  the  lesson,  if  he  has  comprehended  only  the 
isolated  parts  of  the  lesson,  and  has  failed  to  unite 
them  into  a  systematic  unit,  he  must  confine  his  recita- 
tion work  to  scrappy  fragments  of  matter  taken  from 
parts  of  paragraphs.  It  is  impossible  to  ask  a  question 
which  reaches  deeply  into  the  subject-matter  unless 
the  teacher  has  mastered  the  lesson  in  its  entirety. 
The  question  should  be  the  focus  of  a  discussion;  it 
should  be  a  large  topic  under  which  may  be  grouped 
one  or  more  smaller  topics.  It  is  impossible  to  con- 
duct the  recitation  in  this  manner  unless  the  teacher 
knows  the  lesson  so  well  that  he  can  dispense  very 
largely  with  the  use  of  the  text  in  the  conduct  of  the 
recitation. 

Fragmentary  Teaching.  The  systematic  organiza- 
tion of  the  subject-matter  of  the  text  enables  the 
teacher  to  avoid  fragmentary  teaching;  it  enables  him 
to  connect  the  successive  steps  of  instruction  from 
lesson  to  lesson  into  larger  and  larger  units.  There  is 
very  little  profit  in  a  study  which  is  taught  and  recited 


one  paragraph  at  a  time  without  reference  to  the  unit 
of  instruction  of  which  the  topic  is  a  part.  If  this 
relating  and  connecting  process  is  kept  up  from  day 
to  day,  there  will  be  little  danger  of  pupils  "forgetting" 
within  a  few  days  after  a  topic  has  been  studied. 

The  teacher  should  have  a  clear  conception  of  the 
fundamental  principles  and  topics  of  every  subject  he 
teaches.  His  one  aim  should  be  to  fix  these  in  the 
minds  of  his  pupils  by  constant  repetition  and  applica- 
tion. In  mathematics,  for  example,  there  are  processes 
which  are  vital  hi  each  year's  work.  These  processes 
are  taught  separately,  and  in  many  instances  are  put 
aside  for  a  similar  treatment  of  another  process.  Each 
process  needs  to  be  called  up  and  applied  at  frequent 
intervals  in  order  to  prevent  sluggishness  in  their  use 
when  they  are  needed.  In  algebra  there  are  funda- 
mental processes  which  must  be  kept  constantly  before 
the  pupils  as  they  move  along  from  week  to  week. 
The  methods  of  factoring,  removal  of  parenthesis, 
formation  of  equations,  fractional  exponents,  and  other 
processes  must  be  practiced  even  after  they  have  been 
given  special  study,  until  they  are  thoroughly  fixed  in 
the  mind.  In  the  study  of  a  language  there  is  special 
need  for  these  recurring  exercises  on  the  paradigm 
forms;  the  first  impressions  grow  dim  in  a  few  weeks 
unless  they  are  brought  back  again  and  again  into 
consciousness.  It  requires  only  a  few  minutes  each 
day  or  each  week  to  brighten  these  impressions,  but  it 
requires  a  great  deal  of  time  to  explain  them  anew 
after  they  have  been  forgotten.  Some  teachers  use  to 


CONDUCTING  THE  RECITATION  165 

advantage  special  lesson  periods  at  stated  intervals  for 
this  general  "rounding-up"  work.  The  need  for  work 
of  this  character  is  apparent  in  every  study  in  school. 
Let  the  teacher  decide  in  his  own  mind  what  these 
important  things  are  in  spelling,  geography,  history, 
arithmetic,  grammar,  reading,  music,  and  writing. 
The  various  studies  in  the  high  school  may  be  analyzed 
in  the  same  manner.  The  teacher  who  will  take  the 
trouble  to  arrange  these  salient  features  of  his  studies  in 
definite  form  and  who  will  then  keep  up  a  systematic 
attack  through  recurrence  to  them  from  time  to  time 
through  the  year,  will  not  be  disappointed,  as  he  often 
is,  with  the  results  of  his  written  examinations  at  the 
close  of  the  semester. 

Overworking  the  Bright  Pupil.  There  is  a  strong 
tendency  in  the  recitation  for  the  teacher  to  overwork 
the  stronger  pupils  of  the  class  and  underwork  the 
slower  pupils.  There  are  many  devices  commonly 
used  by  teachers  which  are  confined  in  their  operation 
almost  entirely  to  the  stronger  pupils.  An  illustration 
of  devices  of  this  character  is  the  following,  generally 
used  by  elementary  teachers  of  arithmetic:  The 
teacher  begins  the  exercise  by  saying,  "I  am  thinking 
of  two  numbers  whose  product  is  24."  The  pupils 
raise  their  hands,  and  one  pupil  guesses  the  correct 
numbers  whose  product  is  24.  This  pupil  then  steps  to 
the  front  of  the  room  and  gives  a  similar  problem, 
perhaps  two  numbers  whose  product  is  36.  The  pupils 
raise  their  hands  and  the  pupil  designates  one  pupil 
to  give  his  guess  which  is,  perhaps,  "Is  it  9  times  4?" 


166  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

"No,  it  is  not  9  times  4,"  replies  the  questioner.  He 
now  designates  another  pupil  to  give  his  guess,  which 
may  be,  "Is  it  6  times  6?"  "No,  it  is  not  6  times  6," 
comes  the  stereotyped  answer.  "Is  it  3  times  12?" 
asks  another.  "No,  it  is  not  3  times  12,"  comes  the 
reply,  and  so  the  process  is  carried  on  until  the  correct 
numbers  are  guessed,  whereupon  the  questioner  replies, 
"Yes,  it  is  blank  times  blank."  Then  the  lucky 
guesser  tries  the  class  with  a  problem  of  his  own  choos- 
ing. All  this  time,  of  course,  no  pupil  is  called  upon 
except  those  who  raise  their  hands;  this  confines  the 
work  to  the  pupils  who  are  strongest  in  this  kind  of 
work  and  neglects  entirely  those  who  are  weakest.  The 
time  consumed  by  the  mechanical  repetition  of  "Is  it 
blank  times  blank,"  and  "No,  it  is  not  blank  times 
blank,"  is  sufficient  to  condemn  it  as  a  drill  exercise, 
if  for  no  other  reason.  A  better  device  for  drill  should 
accomplish  twenty  times  as  much  work  and  engage  all 
the  pupils.  There  are  several  devices  for  drills  on  the 
tables  which  save  this  enormous  waste  of  time  and 
apply  to  all  the  pupils.  One  of  these  is  the  cylinder 
by  means  of  which  the  numbers  may  be  revolved 
quickly  in  systematic  combinations  before  the  pupils. 
The  numbers  are  sometimes  placed  upon  cards  and 
used  as  a  teacher  would  employ  drill  cards.  A  good 
device  is  to  draw  a  circle  and  write  the  digits  from  one 
to  ten  around  the  margin.  A  digit  is  placed  in  the 
center  of  the  circle;  this  figure  is  considered  the  multi- 
plier. The  pupils  are  called  upon  to  name  the  products 
in  order  around  the  circle.  If  the  numbers  around 


CONDUCTING  THE  RECITATION  167 

the  margin  are  3,  6,  4,  8,  9,  2,  0,  7,  1,  3,  5,  7,  2,  8,  9 
etc.,  and  the  number  in  the  center  is  6,  the  pupil 
names  the  products  in  order,  thus:  18,  36,  24,  48,  54, 
etc.,  until  another  is  asked  by  the  teacher  to  continue. 
All  the  pupils  must  follow  the  order  that  they  may  be 
able  to  take  up  the  work  when  designated.  All  the 
pupils  must  engage  in  the  exercise,  and  a  great  amount 
of  work  is  done  in  a  short  time. 

The  old  practice  of  "spelling  down"  is  objectionable 
because  the  stronger  pupils  secure  almost  all  the 
benefit.  There  is,  perhaps,  some  value  in  spelling 
familiar  words,  but  the  value  is  slight  as  compared 
with  that  obtained  from  the  study  of  words  whose 
spelling  has  been  learned  only  recently.  The  words 
which  need  repetition  by  all  the  pupils  are  the  words 
they  have  recently  missed  in  their  written  work  or 
their  regular  spelling  lessons. 

Some  devices  in  reading  give  the  stronger  pupils 
the  chief  benefit.  One  of  these  practices  consists  in 
refusing  to  permit  a  pupil  to  read  after  he  has  made  a 
mistake.  The  very  pupils  who  need  the  extra  practice 
and  those  who  are  most  likely  to  commit  some  error 
before  they  have  read  more  than  a  line  or  two,  are 
deprived  of  their  normal  share  of  reading,  and  those 
who  have  little  need  for  extra  practice  and  who  may 
read  several  paragraphs  without  error  receive  more 
than  their  normal  amount  of  reading.  Besides,  this 
method  places  the  emphasis  in  the  wrong  place  in 
reading.  Slight  errors  in  pronunciation,  inflection, 
and  miscalling  of  words  is  preferable  to  mechanically 


168  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

perfect  reading  without  expression.  The  injunction, 
"Read  until  you  make  a  mistake,"  places  undue  stress 
upon  the  mechanical  part  and  at  the  same  time  over- 
works the  stronger  members  of  the  class. 

The  extensive  use  of  the  volunteer  recitation  is 
objectionable  because  it,  too,  limits  participation  in 
the  recitation  to  a  small  group  of  pupils  who 
are  the  stronger  members  of  the  class.  Pupils 
who  are  less  aggressive  should  be  urged  and  en- 
couraged to  participate  in  the  recitation.  It  is  the 
chief  means  of  stimulating  their  interest  in  the  recita- 
tion, and  it  is  the  best  way  to  give  them  greater 
strength. 

Working  All  the  Pupils.  It  is  a  difficult  art  to 
work  all  the  pupils  of  a  class  to  the  same  degree  of 
intensity  throughout  the  recitation.  The  degree,  how- 
ever, to  which  a  teacher  does  this  is  a  fair  standard  of 
his  efficiency.  When  one  or  more  pupils  in  a  recita- 
tion lose  contact  with  the  line  of  thought,  they  cease 
to  be  benefited  by  the  class  work;  the  evil  effect  of 
this  condition  is  exactly  the  same  as  that  which 
results  from  absence  from  school — the  pupil  is  absent 
mentally.  How  to  keep  this  mental  presence  of  all 
the  pupils  in  the  recitation  is  one  of  the  greatest 
problems  of  the  teacher.  Some  teachers  seem  to  give 
little  concern  about  the  class  as  a  whole.  They  confine 
their  attention  to  the  few  who  are  able  to  follow  the 
line  of  instruction.  This  unity  of  attention  for  which 
the  teacher  must  strive,  results  from  his  method  of 
conducting  his  recitation. 


CONDUCTING  THE  RECITATION          169 

In  a  certain  class  of  seventh-grade  pupils  in  reading 
the  teacher  began  the  recitation  with  a  question  about 
the  content  of  the  lesson.  Seven  of  the  twenty-eight 
pupils  raised  their  hands.  The  remaining  twenty-one 
pupils  failed  to  grasp  the  meaning  of  the  question  or  to 
recall  the  answer  to  the  question.  The  trained 
observer  would  at  once  conclude  that  those  who  raised 
their  hands  were  the  strongest  pupils  of  the  class. 
The  teacher  seemed  not  to  notice  that  his  question  had 
reached  only  a  small  number  of  the  class.  No  attempt 
was  made  to  modify  the  question  or  to  bring  into  the 
circle  of  thought  a  larger  proportion  of  the  class. 
Throughout  the  recitation  there  was  very  little  response 
from  any  of  the  pupils  except  the  original  seven  who 
responded  to  the  first  question.  Some  of  these  pupils 
recited  several  times,  and  one  of  the  seven  recited  six 
times  during  the  period.  Three-fourths  of  the  class 
were  ignored  for  the  one-fourth,  and  these  former  pupils 
were  evidently  the  members  of  the  class  who  needed 
most  the  stimulus  which  comes  from  participation  in  the 
recitation.  The  teacher  needs  to  measure  his  questions 
and  his  mode  of  procedure  at  every  point  to  determine 
how  nearly  he  is  reaching  all  the  members  of  the  class.  A 
lesson  which  is  improperly  mastered,  or  an  examination 
which  a  majority  of  the  class  fail  to  pass,  shows  ill- 
adjustment  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  to  the  needs  of  the 
pupils.  It  is  certainly  a  poor  species  of  economy  which 
leads  the  teacher  to  move  along  with  his  recitation 
day  after  day  and  week  after  week  with  only  a  small 
fraction  of  the  pupils  being  reached  by  his  instruction. 


170  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

Profiting  through  Doing.  Pupils  gain  power  and 
interest  in  class  work  through  doing;  "Learn  to  do  by 
doing"  is  an  old  principle  in  education.  No  amount 
of  work  done  by  the  teacher  for  the  pupils  and  no 
amount  of  work  done  by  one  pupil  for  another  can 
take  the  place  of  work  done  by  each  pupil  for  himself. 
The  teacher  should  avoid  at  all  times  methods  and  ex- 
ercises which  fail  to  call  out  the  activities  of  the  class 
as  a  whole.  The  teacher  and  the  pupils  themselves 
rarely  know  how  vaguely  principles  and  processes  are 
understood  until  they  attempt  to  put  them  into  execu- 
tion. Teachers  constantly  assume  the  burden  of  school 
activities  and  stay  the  progress  of  the  pupils  instead  of 
developing  the  pupils'  strength  gradually  through 
larger  and  larger  participation.  It  requires  careful 
thought  for  the  teacher  to  do  just  enough  and  not  too 
much  to  enable  the  pupils  to  assist  themselves.  When 
a  new  study  is  taken  up  by  a  class,  a  great  deal  of  help 
is  necessary  from  the  teacher,  but  each  day  he  should 
permit  the  pupils  to  try  their  powers  just  a  little  more. 
If  he  is  skillful  in  making  this  delicate  adjustment  of 
the  problem  to  the  capacity  of  the  pupils,  their  inde- 
pendence should  become  greater  and  greater  as  the 
time  devoted  to  the  study  increases.  The  teacher 
must  analyze  his  methods  in  each  study  in  order  to 
detect  practices  which  result  in  doing  work  for  the 
pupils  instead  of  developing  power  in  them  to  do  it 
without  the  teacher's  assistance.  It  is  easy  for  the 
teacher  to  be  deceived  as  to  the  efficacy  of  the 
practice  of  "pulling  pupils  out"  of  difficulties.  The 


CONDUCTING  THE  RECITATION  171 

class  work  moves  along  so  much  better,  the  teacher 
thinks. 

There  is  no  place  where  the  teacher  may  do  more 
harm  by  giving  too  much  assistance  than  in  conduct- 
ing an  exercise  in  music.  The  teacher  is  convinced 
that  "results"  are  the  supreme  test  of  the  wisdom  of 
the  practice  he  pursues,  but  he  fails  to  apply  the 
proper  test  for  the  real  results  which  follow  the  practice. 
If  he  stands  before  his  class  and  sings  constantly  with 
his  pupils,  it  is  not  long  until  the  selection  is  learned, 
and  the  pupils  all  sing  it  readily.  If  he  had  thrown 
the  pupils  upon  their  own  responsibility,  it  would 
have  taken  much  longer  to  teach  the  selection.  Would 
this  not  be  convincing  proof  that  the  teacher  should 
sing  with  the  pupils?  But  the  deception  arises  here 
because  the  apparent  results  are  widely  different  from 
the  real  results.  What  has  really  happened  is  that  the 
pupils  have  learned  the  lesson  through  imitation — by 
rote,  as  we  say.  They  have  not  made  any  gain  in 
power  to  read  music;  with  the  next  lesson,  and  the 
next,  and  the  next,  and  so  on,  they  will  have  the  same 
difficulty.  The  effect  is  comparable  to  that  which 
would  result  from  reading  over  and  over  a  selection 
v,rith  a  pupil  before  asking  him  to  read  it  alone;  he 
would  soon  be  able  to  read  the  selection  with  this 
assistance  from  the  teacher,  but  he  would  gain  inde- 
pendence in  reading  very  slowly.  The  practice  of 
beating  the  time  so  that  the  beats  are  audible  to  the 
pupils  is  an  evil  as  great  as  that  resulting  from  singing 
with  them.  If  the  pupils  are  to  acquire  the  ability 


172  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOI 

to  do  this  independent  of  the  teacher,  they  must  begin 
to  do  it  in  the  early  stages  of  their  music  work,  and  be 
required  to  continue  it  throughout  their  work.  The 
result  at  the  end  of  their  work  in  music  will  be  suf- 
ficiently conspicuous  to  convince  the  teacher  of  the 
fallacy  of  doing  the  work  for  the  pupils. 

An  illustration  of  the  evil  resulting  from  the  practice 
of  doing  music  work  for  the  pupils  was  related  to  the 
author  recently  by  a  supervisor  of  music  for  the  pub- 
lishers of  one  of  the  most  widely  used  systems  in  the 
schools.  The  superintendent  of  the  schools  and  the 
regular  supervisor  of  music  were  very  proud  of  the  work 
they  were  doing  in  music.  They  were  anxious  to  have 
the  general  supervisor  conduct  the  music  exercise 
while  she  was  in  their  city;  this,  of  course,  she  was 
glad  to  do.  She  began  the  exercise  by  asking  the 
pupils  to  sing  for  her  some  of  the  selections  they  had 
been  studying  during  the  year.  All  of  these  they  sang 
very  well.  She  then  searched  for  a  selection  which  they 
had  not  seen  in  order  to  test  their  reading  power  and 
their  general  independence.  At  last  one  was  found; 
she  gave  them  the  pitch  and  the  time  movement  and 
started  them;  before  they  had  passed  the  third  measure 
they  broke  down.  The  pupils  turned  instinctively  to 
the  leader,  but  she  shook  her  head,  and  said  to  them, 
"This  is  not  my  proposition;  this  is  your  task."  Again 
and  again  they  attempted  to  sing  the  selection  without 
the  aid  of  the  teacher,  but  each  time  they  broke  down 
before  they  had  sung  a  line.  Out  of  this  class  of  one 
hundred  pupils,  for  that  was  the  number  in  the  chorus, 


CONDUCTING  THE  RECITATION          173 

not  a  pupil  had  acquired  sufficient  independence  to  do 
his  work  without  following  the  teacher  as  a  kind  of 
bellwether.  The  results  stand  in  sharp  contrast  here 
with  those  obtained  by  another  supervisor  of  high 
standing  among  music  supervisors.  Three  hundred 
of  his  pupils  sang  so  well  at  a  great  educational  gather- 
ing that  he  was  questioned  about  their  independence. 
After  all,  some  thought,  his  pupils  had  been  trained  to 
sing  so  well  because  of  special  drill  in  a  few  exercises. 
His  answer  to  the  question  was  an  actual  test  before 
the  audience  on  a  selection  for  sight  work.  A  com- 
mittee of  music  teachers  provided  him  with  copies  of 
their  own  choosing;  the  pupils  were  assembled  on  the 
stage  and  were  then  handed  the  music  leaflets.  The 
director  gave  them  the  pitch  and  the  time  movement, 
and  started  them;  he  then  folded  his  arms  and  walked 
out  of  the  room  and  waited  until  the  pupils  had 
finished  the  selection.  He  then  returned  and  informed 
them  that  although  they  had  kept  together  and  had 
carried  the  parts  through,  they  had  made  a  few  errors 
which  he  hoped  they  would  eliminate  in  the  next 
trial;  he  pointed  out  the  errors  made  in  singing 
certain  accidentals,  and  started  them  through  again, 
but  did  not  sing  for  them  or  keep  the  time  for 
them.  With  the  second  trial  the  pupils  sang  the 
selection  entirely  through  by  syllable  without  making 
a  mistake.  The  director  now  asked  them  to  take  the 
words,  which  they  did  with  the  ease  of  profes- 
sionals. This  is  power  which  results  from  being 
required  to  do- 


174  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

The  principle  under  consideration  might  be  illus- 
trated from  any  study  in  school.  In  arithmetic,  espe- 
cially, there  is  at  times  danger  of  unwise  assistance 
being  given.  When  a  pupil  begins  his  explanation  of 
a  problem,  the  teacher  may  assist  him  with  the  different 
steps,  and  the  explanation  seems  to  be  very  well  given, 
but  let  the  teacher  require  the  pupil  to  begin  the 
explanation  again  after  he  has  been  assisted,  or  take  up 
a  similar  problem,  and  he  may  require  about  as  much 
assistance  as  before.  Until  the  pupil  can  reason  his 
course  through  without  aid  from  the  teacher,  he  has 
not  comprehended  the  process  fully. 

The  teacher  of  reading  in  the  lower  grades  often 
permits  pupils  to  pronounce  words  for  the  reader,  much 
to  his  disadvantage.  The  pupils  have  no  incentive  to 
prepare  themselves  on  difficult  words  when  they  will 
be  piped  into  their  ears  as  soon  as  they  are  needed. 
One  often  hears  a  performance  similar  to  the  following: 
The  pupil  begins  to  read,  "Once  upon  a  time — time — 
long,  long  ago,  there  lived  two  ('brothers')  brothers. 
One  was  rich  and  one  was  poor.  ('Christmas  eve') 
Christmas  eve  came  and  the  poor  ('brother')  brother 
had  no  ('meat')  meat  nor  ('bread')bread  in  his  ('house') 
house.  He  went  to  the  rich  ('brother')  brother  and  asked 
for  ('something')  something  to  eat."  A  little  systematic 
word  study  would  relieve  the  necessity  for  this  worth- 
less mode  of  procedure.  No  benefit  can  come  to  the 
pupil  who  merely  repeats  a  word  after  some  one  else. 

In  a  general  way  it  may  be  said  that  the  teacher  in 
conducting  his  recitation  must  seek  to  keep  his  pupils 


CONDUCTING  THE  RECITATION  175 

active  in  doing  the  work  for  themselves  in  as  large  a 
manner  as  possible.  He  should  endeavor  to  have 
every  pupil  recite  every  day  in  every  subject,  and 
recite  as  much  as  possible  of  the  whole  assignment. 
If  some  pupils  must  be  excused  from  reciting  because 
of  the  size  of  the  class,  they  should  be  the  stronger 
pupils.  One  of  the  best  ways  to  make  a  weak  pupil 
strong  in  his  work,  or  at  least  stronger,  is  to  keep 
him  active  in  doing  the  work  required  in  the  recitation. 
Without  repeated  attempts  at  reciting  a  weak  pupil 
becomes  gradually  weaker  until  he  loses  completely 
the  possibility  of  doing  the  work  required.  The 
tendency  is  very  strong  for  the  teacher  to  neglect  the 
weaker  pupils  and  to  give  the  major  part  of  the  recita- 
tion work  to  the  stronger  pupils.  The  recitation  work 
under  these  conditions  moves  along  more  smoothly 
and  shows  better,  but  the  actual  good  accomplished 
for  the  class  is  much  less  than  it  is  hi  the  recitation 
where  the  teacher  requires  participation  on  the  part  of 
all  the  pupils. 

Wasteful  Methods.  It  is  possible  to  employ 
methods  in  the  conduct  of  the  recitation  which  attempt 
to  secure  a  general  participation  on  the  part  of  the 
pupils,  but  which  consume  a  large  amount  of  time  in 
proportion  to  the  work  accomplished,  and  at  the  same 
time  engage  each  pupil  very  little.  A  teacher,  for 
example,  attempts  a  class  solution  of  a  problem  in 
United  States  money.  He  asks  a  pupil  to  step  to  the 
board  and  write  $5.08;  a  second  pupil  follows  and 
writes  $16,25;  a  third  writes  $1.38;  a  fourth  draws  the 


176  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

line;  a  fifth  adds  the  first  column;  a  sixth  adds  the 
second  column,  and  so  on,  until  the  problem  is  solved; 
it  is,  then,  pointed  off  by  one  pupil,  and  the  answer  is 
read  by  another  pupil.  This  method  of  procedure  is  a 
great  waste  of  time;  there  is  more  time  consumed  by 
pupils  in  passing  to  the  board  and  back  to  their  seats 
than  is  required  to  solve  many  problems  of  this 
character.  The  plan  employs  only  a  part  of  the  class, 
and  each  pupil  does  an  insignificant  part  of  the  work. 
All  the  work  could  be  accomplished  by  all  the  pupils  by 
sending  the  class  to  the  board,  where  each  pupil  could 
solve  the  entire  problem  under  the  direction  of  the 
teacher. 

Talking  the  Time  Away.  One  of  the  commonest 
ways  of  losing  time  in  the  school  is  through  talking; 
this  loss  usually  arises  from  the  tendency  of  the  teacher 
to  sidetrack  to  things  which  are  remote  from  the  aim 
and  purpose  of  the  recitation.  A  certain  teacher  of 
several  years'  experience  was  at  a  loss  to  explain  why 
her  pupils  in  the  third  grade  were  unable  to  accom- 
plish the  amount  of  work  regularly  done  by  the  pupils 
of  her  friend,  who  spent  less  time  on  reading  than  she 
did.  She  asked  for  a  careful  inspection  of  her  method 
to  discover  the  cause  of  the  difference.  Her  pupils 
were  just  as  capable  as  those  of  her  friend,  her  discipline 
was  just  as  good,  and  her  pupils  were  just  as  studious. 
A  single  observation  of  one  of  her  typical  recitations 
in  reading  revealed  at  once  the  cause  of  the  difference. 
One  quite  harmless  appearing  practice  was  the  seat  of 
the  whole  trouble.  She  called  her  class  in  reading, 


CONDUCTING  THE  RECITATION  177 

and  the  pupils  began  to  read  a  simple  story  about 
water.  The  first  sentence  was:  "If  you  have  skated 
on  a  pond  you  know  what  ice  is."  The  reading  was 
stopped  at  this  point  for  a  series  of  questions  and 
discussions  which  served  no  real  purpose  in  teaching 
pupils  to  read.  "How  many  of  you  know  what  a 
pond  is?"  asked  the  teacher.  "What  is  the  difference 
between  a  pond  and  a  lake?"  "What  lakes  have  you 
seen?"  "Name  some  other  lakes  you  have  heard 
about."  "What  is  ice?"  "Why  does  ice  float?" 
"What  other  substance  besides  water  expands  when  it 
freezes?"  "Why  does  a  pitcher  break  when  water 
freezes  in  it?"  These  and  other  questions  were  put  to 
the  class  after  the  first  sentence  was  read,  and  each 
was  followed  by  much  questioning  and  long  discussion. 
This  plan  was  followed  throughout  the  recitation.  At 
the  close  of  the  recitation  ten  lines  had  been  read  by 
the  pupils,  and  only  three  pupils  of  the  twenty  of  the 
class  had  been  called  upon  to  read.  The  work  done 
by  the  teacher  might  have  been  pronounced  good  for 
nature  study,  but  as  a  reading  exercise  it  was  almost 
worthless.  Instead  of  this  elaborate  questioning  and 
indefinite  leading  into  other  fields,  the  teacher  who  had 
produced  better  readers  in  less  time  than  the  teacher 
in  question,  used  the  time  of  the  recitation  for  reading. 
She  questioned  her  pupils  only  when  she  was  in  doubt 
whether  they  understood  the  content;  there  was  no 
questioning  about  words  and  content  which  all  the 
pupils  understood.  She  kept  her  pupils  reading  day 
after  day;  when  the  lesson  was  finished,  they  read  it 


178  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

again;  then  •  they  read  old  lessons  again  and  again. 
Her  pupils  grew  in  power  from  day  to  day,  and  they 
read  new  matter  with  less  and  less  difficulty.  After 
all  is  said  about  methods  in  reading,  pupils  learn  to 
read  by  reading,  and  any  plan  or  device  which  dis- 
penses with  active  participation  in  reading  by  all  of 
the  pupils  will  be  found  to  be  unsatisfactory. 

Dramatization.  Dramatization  gives  reality  to 
reading  and  develops  natural  expression;  but  owing  to 
the  great  need  of  practice  in  reading,  the  teacher  who 
attempts  to  dramatize  every  selection  fails  to  develop 
fluent  readers;  in  the  presence  of  new  subject-matter 
the  pupils  invariably  show  unfamiliarity  with  the 
mechanics  of  reading.  The  teacher  must  exercise 
great  care  in  the  use  of  dramatization,  that  she  does 
not  weaken  her  pupils  through  loss  of  practice  in  read- 
ing. Almost  every  diversion  in  school  has  its  dangers; 
an  attempt  to  develop  pupils  in  one  way  may  be  at 
the  expense  of  some  other  quality  of  equal  importance. 
Everywhere  the  teacher  must  use  judgment  that  her 
work  may  not  become  unbalanced. 

Nature  of  Criticism.  The  recitation  period  affords 
the  teacher  an  opportunity  to  correct  errors  which 
follow  all  attempts  at  learning  and  execution  of 
processes.  For  this  reason  the  teacher  is  necessarily  a 
critic,  but  he  should  not  be  a  mere  faultfinder.  His 
criticism  should  be  designed  to  aid  the  pupil  to  a 
better  understanding  of  difficulties  and  should  always 
be  given  hi  a  kindly  spirit.  Any  other  kind  of  criticism 
defeats  the  purpose  of  criticism  and  tends  to  destroy 


CONDUCTING  THE  RECITATION  179 

the  good  resulting  from  the  recitation.  Ridicule  is 
the  least  profitable  of  all  criticism;  its  effect  is  almost 
entirely  harmful.  No  pupil  should  feel  that  his  recita- 
tion is  likely  to  be  the  basis  of  ridicule.  It  is  only 
natural  that  some  answers  of  pupils  should  be  wrong; 
some  of  them  may  be  amusing.  The  teacher  cheapens 
himself  and  humiliates  the  pupil  by  turning  the  answer 
the  pupil  gives,  so  as  to  render  him  a  subject  of 
laughter  for  the  other  members  of  the  class.  Pupils 
may  become  so  accustomed  to  seeing  the  "funny,  side" 
that  they  are  unable  to  do  substantial  thinking.  When 
a  pupil  is  asked  to  respond  to  a  question,  he  should  feel 
free  to  give  his  answer  as  it  occurs  to  him;  this  answer 
should  be  taken  in  good  faith  by  the  teacher  and 
criticized  in  a  sensible  manner.  If  the  pupil's  impres- 
sions are  wrong,  they  should  be  given  in  order  that 
they  may  be  corrected.  A  pupil  who  is  habitually 
ridiculed  is  likely  to  hesitate  to  give  his  full  opinion 
when  he  may  have  one  worth  giving;  he  will  often  say 
that  he  does  not  know  when  he  does,  but  is  afraid  to 
trust  his  judgment.  This  withdrawal  from  free  par- 
ticipation in  the  recitation  leads  to  indifference  toward 
the  recitation,  the  subject,  and  all  school  work  in 
general.  A  pupil  who  loses  faith  in  himself,  who  loses 
interest  in  a  study,  and  who  begins  to  lose  interest  hi 
school  as  a  desirable  place  to  be  is  in  danger  of  losing 
the  battle  altogether.  Criticism,  then,  should  seek  to 
stimulate  the  pupil,  to  encourage  him,  to  give  him 
faith  in  himself,  and  to  point  out  error  only  to  the 
extent  of  helping  the  pupil.  In  order  to  serve  this 


180  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

purpose  it  may  often  be  necessary  to  withhold  much 
criticism  that  could  be  given.  A  little  criticism 
definitely  directed  toward  a  common  error  and  one 
that  is  fundamental,  is  much  more  -profitable  than  a 
general  criticism  of  both  important  and  unimportant 
points. 

Wrong  Kinds  of  Criticism.  There  are  forms  of 
criticism  which  consume  much  time  but  fail  to  en- 
lighten because  they  are  of  the  wrong  character.  One 
oi  these  consists  in  reducing  the  answer  of  the  pupil 
to  an  absurdity.  A  teacher  may  show  the  absurdity 
of  an  answer  but  fail  utterly  to  show  the  pupil  wherein 
he  has  made  the  error.  A  pupil  may  solve  a  problem 
Involving  the  purchase  of  coal  and  obtain  an  answer 
showing  that  the  price  per  ton  is  twenty-five  cents. 
It  does  not  assist  the  pupil  to  discover  his  error  to 
say,  "I'd  like  for  you  to  buy  coal  for  me."  "What  firm 
is  selling  coal  at  that  price?"  All  criticism  of  this 
character  is  harmful  because  it  diverts  the  mind  from 
the  serious  side  of  the  problem,  promotes  self -con- 
sciousness, and  develops  timidity  in  pupils,  who  are 
already  too  cautious  in  the  matter  of  self-expression. 
The  simple  question,  "Does  your  answer  seem  reason- 
able?" serves  every  purpose  that  the  teacher  desires  to 
accomplish  by  the  other  mode  of  attack.  A  pupil 
who  arrives  at  a  wrong  conclusion  should  be  required 
to  give  the  steps  of  his  solution  in  order  that  he  may 
be  led  to  discover  his  own  error,  or  at  least  to  enable 
the  teacher  to  discover  the  cause  of  his  error  that  he 
may  correct  it.  If  the  pupil  has  failed  to  comprehend 


CONDUCTING  THE  RECITATION  181 

the  principle  involved  in  the  solution,  the  teacher  has 
erred  in  his  presentation.  The  only  thing  that  will 
help  in  this  instance  is  a  further  explanation  of  the 
principle,  a  harking  back  to  the  concrete  basis,  to 
furnish  the  pupil  a  foundation  for  his  thinking.  The 
response  of  the  pupil  should  furnish  the  teacher  a 
standard  for  measurement  of  his  instruction. 

Exhibiting  error  in  written  work  is  criticism  of  the 
wrong  kind.  It  is  very  humiliating  to  most  children 
to  have  their  mistakes  and  defects  made  conspicuous. 
The  practice  of  selecting  the  poorest  paper  in  an 
exercise,  and  holding  it  before  the  school  with  the 
usual  comment  should  be  universally  condemned  when 
it  is  impossible  to  conceal  the  identity  of  the  author. 
Pupils  do  not  profit  by  showing  them  examples  of 
work  as  it  should  not  be.  In  this  instance  the  best 
example  of  inefficient  work  is  shown.  A  pupil  who 
has  made  a  reasonable  effort  to  accomplish  an  assigned 
task  has  discharged  his  obligation,  regardless  of  the 
results  following  the  effort.  This  does  not  mean  that 
a  pupil  is  not  to  be  criticized;  the  objection  is  made 
to  the  form  of  the  criticism  because  it  makes  the 
defect  of  the  pupil  too  conspicuous,  and  it  attempts  to 
correct  error  by  exhibiting  error.  Work  exhibited  to 
the  school  should  be  the  best  specimen  obtainable 
from  the  class;  this  is  an  attainable  standard  and  the 
exhibition  of  it  will  be  an  adequate  reward  for  the 
successful  pupil. 

Criticism  should  be  directed  toward  vital  things. 
A  criticism  in  reading,  for  example,  which  points  out 


182  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

the  omission  of  a  word,  a  repetition  of  a  phrase,  hold- 
ing the  book  too  high  or  too  low,  standing  on  one  foot, 
reading  too  fast  or  too  slow,  letting  the  voice  fall  or 
keeping  it  up,  and  the  like,  is  directed  at  minor  things. 
These  points  should  receive  attention,  but  they  should 
not  be  made  the  center  of  class  attention.  A  pupil 
may  become  so  sensitive  to  these  mechanical  features 
that  he  is  unfitted  to  read  with  thoughtfulness  and 
expression. 

Scolding  is  a  poor  attempt  to  criticize.  To  scold 
a  pupil  because  he  cannot  see  a  point,  or  because  his 
answer  is  wrong,  is  to  stop  the  flow  of  his  mental 
current  in  the  desired  direction  and  to  unfit  him  for 
doing  his  normal  grade  of  thinking.  A  pupil  under 
stress  from  the  teacher  gives  answers  more  and  more 
ridiculous  until  he  gives  the  most  absurd  answers  to 
the  simplest  questions. 

The  Evil  of  Entertaining.  The  recitation  period  is 
not  a  time  for  entertaining  the  pupils.  School  work 
need  not  be  entertaining  in  order  to  be  interesting. 
The  work  of  the  school  has  a  fascination  if  it  is  under- 
stood by  the  pupils.  The  "drudgery"  some  teachers 
get  from  the  regular  work  arises  from  poor  teaching. 
Number  work  has  been  frequently  spoken  of  as  the 
"drudgery"  of  the  school  in  the  primary  grades,  but 
there  are  many  teachers  whose  pupils  are  always 
interested  in  it;  they  will  stop  the  preparation  of 
other  work  to  prepare  the  number  work  unless  the 
teacher  conceals  it  with  a  curtain  until  the  allotted 
time  for  study. 


CONDUCTING  THE  RECITATION  183 

Some  of  the  work  of  the  school  which  is  most 
essential  must  be  accomplished  even  though  it  be 
uninteresting.  Elaborate  attempts  to  make  such 
work  entertaining  and  to  remove  from  it  all  traces  of 
difficulty  are  likely  to  degenerate  into  exercises  of 
little  value — mere  "stunt  work."  Some  authors  of 
texts  have  erred  so  greatly  along  these  lines  that  they 
have  failed  to  give  an  adequate  treatment  of  the 
subject.  Arithmetic  and  grammar  have  been  heavy 
losers  at  times  by  this  dilute  treatment  of  the  subjects. 
Pupils  have  grown  weaker  from  year  to  year  by  study- 
ing books  of  this  type  in  spite  of  longer  terms  of  school 
and  better  qualified  teachers.  In  primary  reading  it 
often  happens  that  much  time  is  wasted  endeavoring 
to  avoid  something  which  is  imagined  to  be  distasteful 
to  the  pupils,  when  a  direct  attempt  to  meet  the 
difficulty  would  be  much  more  interesting  to  the  pupils 
and  would  lead  to  a  mastery  of  the  difficulty  in  less 
time. 

Effect  of  Praise.  Praise  judiciously  used  may  be 
a  stimulus  and  incentive  to  effort  in  the  recitation. 
It  is  doubtful  if  one  gets  too  old  to  appreciate  recog- 
nition for  well-doing.  A  pupil  who  has  struggled  hard 
to  master  a  difficulty  feels  a  sense  of  pride  when  he  is 
commended  by  his  teacher  for  his  effort.  To  say  to  a 
pupil  or  a  class,  "That  was  well  done;  you  have  done 
better  than  I  expected  with  that  difficult  task,"  when 
it  is  true,  is  to  send  the  pupil  or  class  to  the  next  task 
with  an  enthusiasm  and  a  determination  to  do  their 
best. 


184  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

Other  Incentives.  Material  rewards  of  intrinsic 
value  are  not  so  commonly  used  by  teachers  now  as, 
they  were  in  earlier  years.  It  used  to  be  quite  common 
for  teachers  to  give  money  to  the  best  speller  in  each 
class.  A  quarter  or  half  dollar  was  pierced  near  the 
edge  and  a  string  attached  so  that  it  could  be  worn 
from  day  to  day  by  various  pupils  who  received  the 
"head-mark"  on  the  various  days.  The  pupil  who 
wore  the  coin  home  the  greatest  number  of  times 
during  the  term  of  school  was  given  the  money  at  the 
close  of  school.  It  always  happens  in  such  cases  that 
only  a  very  limited  number  of  the  class,  perhaps  two, 
have  any  chance  of  winning;  for  the  rest  of  the  class 
the  reward  fails  to  accomplish  its  purpose.  With  the 
pupils  who  are  affected  the  stimulus  is  of  the  wrong 
kind;  the  interest  is  transferred  from  the  subject  of 
study  to  the  reward.  These  pupils  are  likely  to 
develop  "anti-social"  traits  which  more  than  counter- 
balance the  good  resulting  from  the  reward. 

Some  teachers  rely  upon  the  grade  as  the  stimulus 
for  the  recitation.  It  is  doubtful  if  very  low  grading 
has  any  desirable  effect  upon  indifferent  pupils.  It 
certainly  has  a  disastrous  effect  upon  the  slow  pupil. 
The  teacher  who  is  a  chronic  low  grader  is  seldom 
successful  with  pupils  of  medium  ability  or  those  easily 
discouraged.  The  teacher  is  primarily  a  helper;  he 
should  watch  his  class  closely  to  see  what  pupils  are 
falling  below  a,  fair  average.  Instead  of  trying  to 
compel  his  weaker  pupils  to  greater  effort  by  severe 
grading,  he  should  counsel  with  them  to  learn  the 


CONDUCTING  THE  RECITATION          185 

•    *  . 

reason  for  their  slow  progress.  If  he  does  this,  he 
will  find  many  pupils  who  are  struggling  hard  to  keep 
up,  and  who  need  only  some  assistance  from  him  to 
bring  them  to  a  good  standard  of  work.  If  he  adds 
an  extra  discouragement  by  giving  them  an  extremely 
low  grade,  they  lose  heart  and  quit  trying.  Some 
pupils  are  slow  in  grasping  a  new  subject,  but  do  well 
after  a  few  weeks.  The  teacher  who  overlooks  this 
and  gives  a  pupil  a  grade  of  20  for  the  month  almost 
determines  at  the  outset  the  impossibility  of  the  pupil 
making  a  passing  grade  for  the  semester.  Suppose 
the  average  for  passing  a  study  is  75;  if  a  pupil  is 
graded  20  for  one  month  and  should  make  a  grade  of 
85  for  each  succeeding  month,  it  would  require  five 
and  one-half  months  to  reach  the  passing  average.  It 
is  always  best  not  to  pass  too  stern  a  judgment  at  the 
outset  in  a  study;  the  second  or  third  months  may 
show  strength  where  it  was  not  manifested  at  the 
outset.  Kindly  assistance  freely  given  at  the  proper 
time  will  do  much  toward  transforming  a  failing  pupil 
to  a  first-class  one. 

Again,  there  is  much  damage  done  by  some  teachers 
who  give  high  grades  for  poor  work;  such  grading  gives 
pupils  a  false  conception  of  their  ability  and  usually 
leads  to  a  low  grade  of  application.  The  teacher 
should  hold  a  high  standard  for  his  pupils;  he  should 
not  try  to  grade  them  up  to  the  standard,  but  he 
should  train  them  up  to  the  standard.  The  teacher 
will  usually  get  the  class  of  recitation  work  he  accepts; 
if  he  is  satisfied  with  nothing  but  the  best,  and  if  he 


186  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

strives  daily  for  this  ideal,  showing  his  pupils  where 
they  have  fallen  short  of  the  ideal,  and  if  he  adjusts 
the  length  of  the  lesson  to  his  requirements,  he  will 
soon  have  his  highest  expectations  realized. 

Mannerisms.  Both  teachers  and  pupils  are  prone 
to  fall  into  certain  unnatural  schoolroom  habits.  They 
serve  no  purpose  in  the  school,  besides  they,  in  many 
instances,  are  harmful.  One  of  the  commonest  of 
these  evil  practices  is  that  of  repeating  the  answers  of 
pupils.  Something  akin  to  the  following  occurs  in  the 
recitation:  "What  are  we  studying  today?."  "The 
noun."  "Yes,  the  noun;  what  kind  of  noun?" 
"Proper."  "Yes,  proper;  what  is  a  proper  noun?"  "Name 
of  a  place."  "Yes,  name  of  a  place.  How  many  kinds 
of  nouns?"  "Two."  '""^Yes,  two;  what  are  they?" 
"Common  and  proper."  "Yes,  common  and  proper." 

The  repetition  of  stereotyped  phrases  is  a  fault  of 
many  teachers.  Habits  of  this  character  are  easily 
acquired.  It  is  meaningless  and  monotonous  to  hear 
a  teacher  repeat  over  and  over,  "all  right,"  "that's 
good,"  "yes,  I  see,"  "how  many  see?"  "do  you  under- 
stand?" etc.,  etc.,  while  conducting  the  recitation. 
This  habit  is  rendered  still  more  monotonous  by  a 
continuous  nodding  of  the  head  when  the  pupil  is 
reciting  correctly  and  shaking  it  when  he  is  reciting 
incorrectly.  The  beginning  teacher  especially  must 
be  on  his  guard  continually  against  acquiring  some  of 
these  conspicuous  habits. 

The  "yelling  habit"  is  prevalent  among  beginning 
teachers.  One  may  often  hear  a  teacher  from  the 


CONDUCTING  THE  RECITATION          187 

hall  or  an  adjacent  room  talking  at  the  top  of  his 
voice.  The  tone  of  voice  should  rarely  be  louder  than 
that  used  in  common  speech.  There  are  no  advan- 
tages in  favor  of  loud  tones  in  the  schoolroom.  They 
are  unpleasant,  distracting,  and  conducive  to  noise  in 
the  room.  They  frequently  develop  unnatural  tones 
on  the  part  of  the  pupils  through  attempts  to  imitate 
the  teacher. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  chief  purposes  of  the  recitation?    Discuss 
the  necessity  of  a  definite  plan  in  the  recitation. 

2.  Show  the  danger  of  leaving  the  guidance  of  the  recitation 
to  the  pupils. 

3.  Analyze  the  cause  of  aimless  wandering  in  the  recitation. 
Why  do  pupils  at  times  study  the  less  important  features  of  an 
assignment  to  the  neglect  of  the  important  matter? 

4.  Why  should  the  teacher  be  as  free  as  possible  from  the 
use  of  the  text   when  conducting  the  recitation?     Show  the 
importance  of  a  thorough  mastery  of  the  lesson  by  the  teacher. 

5.  In  what  way  may  a  teacher  avoid  fragmentary  teaching? 
What  plan  should  a  teacher  follow  in  order  to  fix  firmly  the 
salient  features  of  the  subjects  taught? 

6.  Give  several  examples  illustrating  ways  in  which  the 
bright  pupil  is  overworked. 

7.  Show  in  what  manner  the  teacher  should  seek  to  bring 
all  of  the  class  into  the  circle  of  thought  in  the  recitation. 

8.  Explain   the  value  of   participation  in   the  recitation. 
What  are  the  steps  by  which  pupils  gain  power  to  comprehend 
and  express  thought?     Illustrate  these  steps  with  reference  to 
the  teaching  of  music. 

9.  Explain  the  evil  of  talking  the  time  away.     How  does 
this  arise  in  reading,  history,  and  geography? 

10.  Distinguish  between  criticism  and  faultfinding.     Give 
the  chief  objection  to  ridicule  as  a  form  of  criticism.     What 


188  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

should  be  the  attitude  of  the  teacher  in  the  recitation  in  order 
to  cultivate  free  expression  of  opinion  by  the  pupils  in  the  class? 
What  is  the  highest  purpose  in  criticism?  To  what  extent 
should  criticism  be  withheld? 

11.  Show  the  fallacy  of  attempting  to  criticize  a  pupil  by 
reducing  his  answer  to  an  absurdity.     Give  three  other  examples 
of  common  but  wrong  kinds  of  criticism. 

12.  What  are  some  of  the  evils  arising  from  attempts  to  make 
the  work  of  the  school  entertaining?     Show  how  poor  teaching 
may  cause  pupils  to  look  upon  certain  work  of  the  school  as 
drudgery.     Give  illustrations  to  show  that  pupils  are  more 
interested  in  real  work  than  they  are  in  "stunt  work." 

13.  Show  the  effect   of   genuine  praise  on  the  spirit  and 
enthusiasm  of  pupils. 

14.  Point  out  the  chief  objections  to  extremely  low  grading. 
What  is  the  effect  of  giving  high  grades  for  poor  work? 

15.  Give  five  illustrations  of  mannerisms  commonly  found 
in  school. 


CHAPTER  XI 

EXCEPTIONS  TO  THE  RULE 

THE  problems  of  the  teacher  would  be  greatly 
simplified  and  reduced  in  number  if  they  could  be 
classified  under  definite  rules  without  exceptions. 
Unfortunately  there  are  many  pupils  who  depart  so 
far  from  the  rank  and  file  in  the  school  that  they 
require  special  treatment  at  the  hands  of  the  teacher. 
In  large  systems  of  schools  it  is  possible  to  remove 
some  of  these  cases  from  the  care  of  the  regular  teacher 
by  placing  them  in  schools  specially  provided  for  them; 
but  a  large  number  of  teachers  must  still  provide  for 
them  to  the  best  of  their  ability. 

The  Unpromising  Child.  It  is  difficult  to  tell  the 
future  of  a  child  by  his  appearance  and  by  his  struggles 
as  they  are  encountered  by  the  teacher  in  the  school- 
room. Often  a  pupil  may  lack  promise  who  may 
distance  in  the  future  those  with  the  brightest  outlook. 
It  is  not  the  teacher's  to  pass  judgment,  but  his  only 
to  fashion  from  the  material  at  his  command.  If  he 
puts  into  his  efforts  his  best  thought,  the  future  will 
hold  in  store  many  delightful  surprises.  Before  him 
may  be  a  boy  of  little  apparent  ability;  he  may  be 
industrious  and  honest  to  a  fault.  As  the  days  and 
weeks  go  by,  his  tenacity  of  purpose  adds  strength  and 
clearness  to  his  thought  until  he  emerges  into  the 

189 


190  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

activities  of  life  capable  of  discharging  his  duties  as 
befits  the  best  citizen  of  the  community.  There  are 
many  changes  which  occur  in  the  lives  of  children 
between  entrance  and  graduation  from  school;  each 
child  is  a  law  unto  himself. 

Years  ago  in  London  there  was  born  a  child  who 
had  little  promise;  his  birthplace  was  over  an  old 
stable.  Sir  Humphry  Davy  was  directed  to  him;  he 
gave  him  advice  sufficient  to  start  his  thought  into  new 
channels.  In  after  years  Tyndall  characterized  him  as 
the  greatest  experimental  philosopher  the  world  had 
ever  seen.  Later  in  life  Davy  was  asked  to  mention 
the  greatest  discovery  he  ever  made;  his  answer  was, 
"Michael  Faraday." 

Not  all  unpromising  pupils  will  become  philoso- 
phers; many  of  them  may  not  become  desirable 
citizens,  but  they  are  a  part  of  the  teacher's  problem, 
and  their  future  happiness  is  often  largely  in  his  hands. 
These  pupils  frequently  come  from  homes  where  the 
most  elementary  assistance  from  the  parents  is  hope- 
lessly impossible.  The  teacher  stands  as  the  only 
means  by  which  such  a  pupil  may  receive  a  common 
school  education;  the  possession  of  it  may  mean  the 
difference  between  living  in  comfort  by  self-support 
and  living  as  a  public  charge.  Often  these  cases  may 
be  reached  only  by  more  or  less  sacrifice  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher. 

The  Discouraged  Pupil.  Pupils  vary  as  much  in 
characteristics  as  do  adults.  Some  pupils  are  easily 
discouraged  and  need  careful  attention  from  the 


EXCEPTIONS  TO  THE  RULE  191 

teacher  to  keep  them  in  a  spirit  to  accomplish  their 
work.  To  such  pupils  the  tasks  of  the  school  seem 
at  times  insurmountable.  In  these  moments  of  dis- 
couragement resolutions  are  formed  which  often  result 
in  withdrawal  from  school.  The  following  example 
illustrates  the  nature  of  the  problem:  A  boy  came 
to  his  teacher  one  morning  and  said,  "I  believe  I'll 
quit  school."  The  teacher  was  surprised  at  the 
declaration  and  pressed  the  pupil  for  the  reason. 
Finally,  with  considerable  hesitation,  he  said,  "I  just 
can't  get  that  algebra."  He  added  further,  "I  never 
was  very  good  at  mathematics."  The  teacher  told 
him  he  was  mistaken  about  the  subject  being  unusually 
difficult;  that  he  should  come  to  him  for  assistance. 
The  gloom  was  not  dispelled  and  the  pupil  was  losing 
courage  more  and  more.  He  was  then  asked  by  the 
teacher  to  confer  with  him  every  morning  before 
school  until  he  was  excused.  The  pupil  came  morning 
after  morning  and  worked  his  algebra  under  the  direct 
supervision  of  his  teacher.  All  the  points  which  gave 
him  trouble  were  explained.  After  two  weeks,  the 
pupil  confessed  that  the  subject  is  not  so  difficult  as  it 
first  appears;  but  he  continued  to  do  special  work 
with  his  teacher,  who  was  anxious  to  encourage  and 
to  help  him.  At  the  end  of  a  month  the  boy  was 
excused  from  doing  this  special  work,  but  was  urged  to 
seek  assistance  in  the  same  way  in  the  future  if  it  was 
necessary.  No  further  special  aid  was  necessary,  but 
at  the  close  of  the  year  his  grade  was  the  highest  in  the 
class.  This  pupil  finished  his  high  school  course  and 


later  graduated  from  college.  It  is  easy  from  these 
facts  to  estimate  the  value  of  the  aid  given  to  this 
pupil  at  the  critical  time  at  which  it  was  given.  It  is 
plain  that  this  slight  difficulty  stood  hi  the  way  of 
further  advancement  in  school.  The  pupil  owes  his 
graduation  from  high  school  and  college  to  the  teacher 
who  was  wise  enough  to  meet  a  practical  difficulty  in  a 
practical  manner.  This  teacher  lost  very  few  pupils 
from  his  high  school,  because  he  was  keenly  sensitive 
to  the  needs  of  his  pupils,  and  he  spared  no  pains  to 
give  assistance  when  it  was  needed. 

The  Timid  Pupil.  Timidity  manifests  itself  .in 
different  ways  among  pupils;  often  the  teacher  may 
construe  it  as  an  exhibition  of  impertinence.  Timidity 
is  frequent  among  pupils  of  excellent  ability.  The 
teacher  needs  to  exercise  great  care  in  such  cases  to 
remove  the  handicap.  The  chief  need  of  the  pupil  is 
confidence  in  himself.  This  is  gained  only  by  the 
performance  of  tasks  at  the  request  of  the  teacher. 
The  teacher  should  begin  by  making  simple  requests; 
these  should  require  little  more  than  the  statement  of  a 
single  sentence;  the  number  of  requests  should  be 
increased  and  the  difficulty  gradually  increased.  All 
the  errors  of  the  pupil  should  be  minimized  or  entirely 
disregarded.  The  assignment  of  a  very  difficult  task 
to  the  pupil,  or  the  administration  of  severe  reproof, 
may  be  the  means  of  neutralizing  the  accomplishment 
of  weeks. 

A  teacher  who  interprets  the  conduct  of  a  pupil 
as  a  manifestation  of  impertinence  or  laziness  when  it 


EXCEPTIONS  TO  THE  RULE  193 

is  the  result  of  timidity  commits  an  almost  irreparable 
blunder  by  administering  a  severe  reproof.  The  next 
time  the  pupil  attempts  to  recite  his  conduct  will  be 
still  more  suspicious;  if  this  is  met  by  another  reproof, 
it  is  quite  likely  that  the  teacher  will  be  unable  to 
secure  even  an  attempt  to  respond  to  his  requests. 

The  Slow  Pupil.  Every  year  when  school  opens, 
every  teacher  finds  one  or  more  pupils  who  are  slow 
in  learning.  No  set  of  investigations  has  yet  told  us 
how  to  deal  with  all  of  these  cases.  It  is  not  a  matter 
of  adenoids  in  all  cases;  it  is  not  a  matter  of  defective 
senses,  undernourishment,  nervousness,  or  other  physi- 
cal defects;  it  is  not  a  matter  of  poor  instruction  in 
the  former  grade.  There  is  something  in  the  heredity 
that  we  do  not  comprehend  which  renders  learning 
from  books  difficult,  and  no  device  of  correlation  with 
handwork  or  anything  else  solves  the  problem.  It  is 
very  discouraging  for  these  pupils  to  be  confronted 
day  by  day  with  these  difficult  school  tasks  unless  they 
have  a  teacher  filled  with  a  genuine  spirit  of  helpful- 
ness. These  slow  pupils  are  often  the  very  "salt  of 
the  earth."  They  may  have  the  finest  qualities  of 
heart;  be  honest  to  a  fault,  careful,  industrious,  and 
conscientious.  Often  they  are  quick  and  reliable  in 
learning  to  perform  tasks  in  the  shop  or  field.  Some 
boys  at  twelve  may  learn  to  read  or  comprehend 
arithmetic  with  the  utmost  difficulty,  but  be  the 
equal  of  a  man  in  doing  the  tasks  assigned  them  by 
their  father  on  the  farm.  Pupils  with  these  qualities 
must  be  taught  through  individual  exercises  adapted 


to  their  needs.  The  teacher  must  study  these  cases 
carefully  and  pile  illustration  upon  illustration,  and 
repeat  many  times  the  same  subject-matter  in  slightly 
different  forms  until  difficulties  are  grasped.  In  cases 
like  these  the  teacher  will  need  ample  knowledge  of 
the  science  of  teaching  and  a  wealth  of  experience  in  the 
art  of  instruction.  It  is  a  fine  accomplishment  to 
understand  a  machine  so  well  that  one  can  set  it  in 
motion  and  cause  it  to  perform  its  function  effectively, 
but  it  is  a  much  finer  accomplishment  to  be  able  to 
touch  a  sluggish  intellect  and  enable  it  to  perform  the 
marvelous  process  of  mental  growth.  The  most 
unprofessional  thing  the  teacher  can  do  is  to  "kill  off" 
these  pupils  by  letting  them  fail  year  after  year  with- 
out trying  to  reach  them.  Discarding  as  unfit  and 
worthless  has  been  the  process  in  the  crude  and 
ignorant  stages  of  all  sciences.  In  dentistry  all  aching 
teeth  were  extracted;  in  surgery  all  injured  limbs 
were  amputated.  Once  it  was  proper  to  expose  the 
weak  child  that  it  might  die  young;  today  we  hesitate 
to  pass  judgment  as  to  who  the  weak  are,  until  they 
have  had  a  chance  to  live  and  grow.  The  schools  in 
recent  years  have  been  educating  a  large  number  of 
children  who  were  formerly  given  up  as  hopeless;  this 
has  resulted  from  a  better  knowledge  of  the  principles 
of  teaching  and  from  a  new  attitude  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  toward  his  work.  The  teacher  no  longer 
attempts  to  discharge  his  obligation  by  saying,  "I 
never  advise  such  pupils  to  attempt  to  secure  an 
education." 


EXCEPTIONS  TO  THE  RULE  195 

Some  pupils  are  slow  who  may  not  be  permanently 
slow  in  learning.  With  extra  help  they  may  overcome 
their  difficulties  and  make  rapid  progress.  Difficulties 
in  learning  increase  with  the  period  of  neglect  and 
often  diminish  rapidly  under  special  aid.  It  behooves 
the  teacher  to  begin  early  to  strengthen  those  who 
show  unusual  weakness  in  their  work.  In  most 
instances,  however,  it  is  necessary  for  the  teacher  to 
give  such  pupils  some  attention  outside  of  the  regular 
class.  A  pupil  in  the  lower  grades  who  manifests  a 
weakness  in  his  reading  will  often  gain  material 
strength  by  being  required  to  read  each  lesson  to  his 
teacher  before  or  after  school  hours.  Pupils  who  are 
troubled  with  mathematics  should  go  over  the  lesson 
with  the  teacher  before  it  is  studied,  in  order  that  all 
special  difficulties  may  be  explained.  A  little  system- 
atic help  given  in  due  time  frequently  saves  many 
failures  in  the  classes.  A  pupil  in  spelling  may  have 
difficulty  who,  if  properly  directed,  may  soon  overcome 
his  weakness  entirely. 

The  Pupil  of  Quick  Temper.  The  teacher  often 
encounters  pupils  of  uncontrollable  tempers;  this  is 
especially  true  in  dealing  with  older  pupils.  These 
pupils  are  impulsive  and  reckless  when  angry.  Mere 
incidents  in  the  school  may,  with  an  impulsive  and 
quick-tempered  teacher,  develop  into  serious  encoun- 
ters. A  little  care  and  tact  will  enable  the  teacher  to 
avoid  all  such  troubles.  The  teacher  must  be  calm 
and  deliberate;  nothing  must  be  done  under  the  stress 
of  the  moment.  Each  time  this  weakness  of  the  pupil 


196  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

is  called  out  it  becomes  stronger  and  the  longer  it 
remains  inactive  the  greater  the  stress  required  to 
display  it.  Sometimes  the  pupil  is  the  least  respon- 
sible for  possessing  the  disagreeable  trait;  inheritance 
and  unwise  parental  management  have  led  to  this 
inevitable  result. 

Pupils  with  Nervous  Affliction.  A  pupil  with 
nervous  disorder  may  be  the  teacher's  chief  annoyance 
in  the  school.  These  disorders  may  at  times  manifest 
themselves  in  misconduct;  the  teacher  who  misunder- 
stands the  case  attempts  to  eliminate  the  difficulty 
through  the  infliction  of  punishment.  This  only  con- 
tributes to  the  evil.  A  conference  with  the  parent 
should  be  had  in  such  cases,  that  the  advice  of  a 
physician  may  be  obtained.  It  is  often  well  to  isolate 
the  pupil  if  possible;  if  this  is  not  possible,  the  pupil 
should  receive  careful  attention  as  to  seating  in  the 
room.  Special  arrangements  for  rest  periods  and 
recreation  in  the  open  air  contribute  much  to  the 
management  of  such  pupils.  If  the  pupil  lives  near 
the  school,  it  is  advisable  to  permit  the  pupil  to  attend 
his  recitations  and  return  home  in  order  to  be  relieved 
as  much  as  possible  from  the  strain  incident  to  the 
schoolroom.  The  pupil  may  be  permitted  to  omit  to 
advantage  some  studies  of  lesser  importance;  this 
arrangement  may  enable  the  pupil  to  hold  his  place 
in  the  grades  until  the  disorder  has  been  in  a 
measure  corrected.  The  regulations  of  the  school 
should  always  be  sufficiently  elastic  to  enable  every 
pupil  to  obtain  whatever  benefit  his  physical  con- 


EXCEPTIONS  TO  THE  RULE  197 

dition  will  warrant,  although  this  may  sometimes  be 
small. 

The  Child  of  the  Poor.  There  exists  in  almost 
every  school  one  or  more  pupils  who  are  embarrassed 
from  lack  of  sufficient  means  to  enable  them  to  obtain 
supplies;  of  all  pupils  in  the  school  this  type  of  pupil 
needs  most  the  advantages  of  an  education.  In  most 
states  the  laws  make  some  provision  whereby  supplies 
may  be  furnished  at  public  expense.  Where  this  is 
not  possible,  a  little  effort  on  the  part  of  the  teacher 
will  enable  him  to  supply  the  pupil  at  little  cost;  often 
books  may  be  borrowed  or  purchased  from  other 
pupils  at  little  expense.  In  all  cases,  the  pupil  should 
be  supplied  with  as  little  publicity  as  possible.  Those 
who  have  had  experience  with  many  cases  of  this  type 
have  not  failed  to  observe  that  such  pupils  are  in  many 
instances  extremely  sensitive  as  to  their  dependence;  to 
have  it  generally  known  is  to  them  humiliating  in  the 
extreme.  It  is  this  sensitiveness  that  impels  them  to 
become  self-supporting;  by  publicity  this  sensitiveness 
is  blunted,  and  substantial  aid  is  thus  given  toward 
the  production  of  public  charges. 

The  Untidy  Pupil.  The  only  remedy  in  some  cases 
in  school  is  direct  attention  to  the  child  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher;  a  pupil  who  comes  to  school  without 
washing  day  after  day  should  be  required  to  attend 
to  the  matter  regularly  at  school.  It  often  happens 
in  such  cases  that  it  is  a  waste  of  time  to  attempt  to 
induce  the  parent  to  give  the  pupil  the  proper  care  at 
home;  parents  whose  ideals  have  so  far  decayed  are 


198  PRACTICAL  P'ROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

not  capable  of  stimulus  by  the  ordinary  methods 
available  to  the  teacher;  to  exclude  the  pupil  from 
school,  would  punish  the  child  for  the  sins  of  the 
parents,  and  would  frequently  be  the  one  chief  thing 
desired  by  them.  In  the  case  of  very  small  pupils  the 
teacher  should  not  hesitate  to  prepare  the  child  per- 
sonally. Bathing  is  an  unknown  experience  to  such 
pupils  until  it  is  provided  at  school  by  the  teacher. 

The  prevalence  of  lice  is  common  among  neglected 
pupils;  a  few  applications  of  the  tincture  of  larkspur 
with  a  shampoo  will  free  the  pupil  from  objection. 
In  all  these  cases  the  pupil  should  be  taught  to  apply 
the  remedies  of  the  teacher  if  he  is  able  to  do  so. 
There  is  no  lesson  the  teacher  can  give  a  pupil  which  is 
of  greater  value  than  that  of  cleanliness;  it  is  at  the 
basis  of  good  health,  and  it  is  fundamental  to  the 
progress  of  the  pupil  in  school.  Without  cleanliness 
one  is  unsought  for  every  class  of  labor  except  that  of 
the  very  lowest  grade. 

The  Incorrigible  Pupil.  It  is  easy  to  theorize 
regarding  the  question  of  "no  incorrigible  children," 
but  theories  leave  facts  undisturbed;  the  teacher  may 
meet  in  his  work  occasionally  a  pupil  whose  presence 
in  the  school  should  not  be  tolerated;  to  do  so  would 
be  poor  economy  and  disastrous  to  the  best  interest 
of  the  school.  The  public  school  by  its  nature  cannot 
serve  the  function  of  a  penal  institution  or  a  reforma- 
tory. Much  has  been  said  against  turning  a  boy  or 
girl  out  to  ruin,  but  it  is  far  better  to  allow  one  pupil 
to  go  all  the  way  to  ruin  than  to  permit,  by  means  of 


EXCEPTIONS  TO  THE  RULE  199 

his  presence,  twenty  pupils  to  go  one-fifth  of  the  way 
to  ruin. 

The  power  of  expelling  a  pupil  lies  with  the  board 
of  education;  the  teacher  should  not  assume  this 
power,  because  of  the  possibility  of  his  decision  being 
reversed  by  the  board.  It  is  always  best  to  await  the 
action  of  the  board  in  the  case  of  incorrigible  pupils; 
if  they  deem  it  best,  they  may  condition  the  pupil  by 
demanding  his  conformance  to  the  requirements  of  the 
school  under  penalty  of  dismissal;  it  often  happens  in 
such  cases  that  the  pupil  will  withdraw  on  his  own 
accord.  Rather  than  obey  regulations  some  pupils 
prefer  to  drop  out  of  school.  It  would  certainly  be 
unwise  to  purchase  attendance  of  a  pupil  at  the  price 
of  insubordination. 

Lacking  in  Capacity.  The  teacher  may  offset  in  a 
measure  by  special  care  many  of  the  weaknesses  and 
disadvantages  of  pupils,  but  he  meets  at  times  a  pupil 
who  is  lacking  in  capacity.  The  teacher,  at  best,  can 
only  direct  and  develop  the  pupil  as  he  is;  he  cannot 
supply  the  brain  with  additional  substance.  There  is 
much  in  the  nature  of  every  child  that  his  teacher  is 
in  no  way  to  be  held  responsible  for;  the  rapid  progress 
of  some  pupils  and  the  slow  progress  of  many  others 
are  due  to  qualities  beyond  the  power  of  the  teacher. 
A  pupil  who  is  so  far  below  the  normal  child  that  he 
cannot  be  instructed  with  even  a  fair  degree  of  success 
in  the  common  schools,  should  be  sent  to  an  institution 
especially  equipped  to  supply  his  needs;  to  continue 
such  a  child  in  school  for  a  long  period  and  require 


200  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

him  to  repeat  the  work  of  the  grade  is  misleading  to 
his  parents  and  deprives  the  pupil  of  an  education 
suited  to  his  needs. 

The  Dreamer.  One  of  the  most  elusive  cases 
encountered  by  the  teacher  is  the  pure  dreamer;  this 
type  of  pupil  may  escape  detection  for  a  time  unless 
the  teacher  is  extremely  alert.  He  is  seldom  guilty  of 
any  violation  of  discipline;  he  is  quiet  in  the  study 
period  and  always  assumes  the  attitude  of  study, 
looking  intently  at  his  book — but  he  never  studies. 
His  mind  is  intent  upon  something  foreign  to  school 
tasks.  A  pupil  who  is  regarded  as  studious  and  who 
does  not  accomplish  in  a  fair  degree  the  work  assigned, 
should  be  carefully  observed  during  the  study  period 
to  see  if  his  study  is  real  or  merely  pretended.  This 
is  easily  determined  by  noting  carefully  whether  the 
pupil  looks  at  the  same  page  in  his  book  or  occasionally 
turns  the  leaf.  If  the  pupil  is  informed  that  one  who 
studies  rarely  finds  all  the  assignment  on  one  page,  he 
will  add  the  formality  of  turning  the  page  to  render 
the  deception  more  complete,  but  he  will  not  devote 
any  more  time  to  study. 

A  pupil  who  is  contracting  the  habit  of  neglect  of 
duty  should  be  held  strictly  responsible  for  definite  re- 
sults. If  he  comes  to  the  recitation  unprepared,  he  should 
be  held  for  further  preparation  until  his  work  is  accept- 
able to  the  teacher.  The  habit  of  musing  results  in 
mental  degeneration.  It  should  be  broken  at  once. 

The  Left- Handed  Pupil.  Left-handed  pupils  are 
found  in  almost  every  school.  It  is  not  advisable  to 


EXCEPTIONS  TO  THE  RULE  201 

attempt  to  teach  such  pupils  to  use  the  right  hand  in 
writing,  drawing,  cutting,  and  other  work  of  the  school. 
But  the  left-handed  pupil  needs  careful  attention  to 
prevent  the  formation  of  awkward  habits  in  the  use 
of  the  pen  and  pencil.  The  fact  that  a  pupil  is  left- 
handed  should  not  serve  as  an  excuse  for  bad  position 
and  evil  habits  in  writing.  There  is  a  strong  tendency 
among  left-handed  pupils  to  write  with  the  hand  above 
the  line  rather  than  below,  as  is  common  with  right- 
handed  pupils.  This  fault  should  be  corrected;  the 
position  used  by  right-handed  pupils  should  be  required 
for  the  pupils  who  are  left-handed.  Left-handed 
pupils  are  inclined  to  write  a  backhand.  Careful 
attention  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  who  insists  upon 
the  proper  slant  will  correct  the  fault.  If  necessary, 
the  teacher  should  have  the  pupil  write  under  his 
supervision  until  the  tendency  to  backhand  is  com- 
pletely overcome. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  rewards  often  follow  giving  to  the  unpromising 
pupil  the  very  best  possible  attention? 

2.  Show  how  discouragement  may  lead  to  withdrawal  from 
school.    How  should  this  problem  be  met  by  the  teachers? 

3.  How  does  timidity  often  manifest  itself  among  pupils? 
At  what  age  is  timidity  common  among  pupils?    How  may  the 
teacher  stimulate  confidence  in  the  pupil? 

4.  How  should  the  teacher  deal  with  the  slow  pupil?    Men- 
tion two  or  three  types  of  slow  pupils. 

5.  What  caution  should  be  exercised  in  the  management  of 
the  pupil  of  quick  and  violent  temper? 

6.  Explain  in  detail  how  a  pupil  with  nervous  affliction 
should  be  provided  for. 


202  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

7.  In  what  respects  should  the  teacher  use  great  care  in  his 
treatment  of  the  child  of  the  poor? 

8.  What  should  be  the  attitude  of  the  teacher  toward  untidi- 
ness in  pupils?    What  legal  powers  has  the  teacher  in  extreme 
cases?    What  powers  has  a  board  of  health  in  these  cases? 

9.  How  and  under  what  conditions  should  a  pupil  be  ex- 
pelled from  school? 

10.  What  course  should  the  teacher  pursue  in  the  case  where 
a  pupil  is  lacking  in  mentality?    How  may  the  teacher  be  sure 
that  his  diagnosis  in  such  cases  is  correct? 

11.  Give  the  characteristics  of  "dreamers."    How  may  the 
teacher  detect  such  pupils  in  his  school?    Give  a  proper  method 
of  treatment  for  these  cases. 

12.  What  special  tendencies  should  be  corrected  in  left- 
handed  pupils? 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  TEACHER 

THE  teacher  needs  a  great  variety  of  knowledge, 
but  there  is  none  which  influences  his  work  more  than 
a  proper  knowledge  of  himself,  and  a  thorough  under- 
standing of  those  qualities  which  determine  his  success. 

The  Teacher's  Work  Difficult.  Teaching  is  a  very 
difficult  science  and  an  art  which  requires  peculiar 
skill.  The  teacher  deals  with  the  least  known  of  all 
subjects  of  study — the  human  mind  and  spirit.  It  is 
with  this  intangible  something,  which  acts  and  develops 
in  accordance  with  law,  that  the  teacher  must  work. 
This  growth  is  influenced  by  countless  multitudes  that 
have  lived  and  died  in  the  scores  of  preceding  cen- 
turies; the  growth  is  influenced  by  many  elements  in 
the  daily  life  of  the  pupils  which  are  neither  directly 
nor  indirectly  under  his  control.  The  teacher  has  in 
his  school  all  the  elements  of  social  life  about  him;  he 
has  those  of  high  motives  and  those  of  low  ones;  he 
has  those  of  good  influence  and  those  with  the  very 
worst.  Centered  in  every  schoolroom  are  children 
whose  ancestors  could  be  traced  to  almost  every 
country,  race,  and  condition  of  life.  These  composite 
forces  must  be  directed  in  some  manner  by  the  teacher 
that  they  may  bring  forth  good  fruit.  We  often  speak 
about  the  complexity  of  the  physical  organism;  the 

203 


204  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

most  skilled  scientist  knows  scarcely  more  than  a  trace 
of  its  mysteries,  yet  it  is  simple  as  compared  with 
thought,  impulses,  feelings,  ambitions,  and  character. 

The  teacher's  task  includes  more  than  mere  in- 
struction in  book  lore.  Today  one  of  the  school 
citizens  has  been  waylaid  and  beaten  by  thugs;  to- 
morrow a  theft  or  robbery  has  been  committed;  then, 
a  case  of  slander  or  personal  abuse.  In  all  these  cases 
the  teacher  must  act  as  attorney  for  both  sides,  dis- 
charge the  function  of  judge  and  jury,  and  finally  act 
as  chief  executioner.  If  one  thinks  this  is  easy  at  all 
times,  it  is  quite  evident  he  has  never  experienced 
some  of  the  perplexities  some  teachers  have  encoun- 
tered. When  the  power  of  recall  is  often  lodged  in 
the  hands  of  the  interested  parties,  one  realizes  how 
delicate  the  task  of  the  teacher  may  become. 

The  Teacher  the  Chief  Element.  The  teacher  is 
the  greatest  of  all  the  elements  of  the  school;  he  is 
greater  than  the  school  board,  greater  than  school 
equipment,  the  community,  and  the  curriculum.  It 
matters  little  what  one  studies  in  school  if  the  teacher 
possesses  superior  qualities  of  scholarship  and  person- 
ality; if  the  teacher  does  not  possess  these,  little  of 
profit  will  result  from  his  instruction. 

The  school  is  to  a  great  extent  a  reflection  of  the 
teacher.  The  experienced  eye  can  detect  in  a  few 
minutes  of  observation  the  qualities  of  the  teacher  by 
observing  the  reaction  these  qualities  have  produced 
in  the  pupils.  These  are  so  apparent  in  some  schools 
that  they  may  be  recognized  in  the  conduct  of  the 


THE  TEACHER  205 

pupils  before  they  reach  the  teacher's  room  after  being 
called  in  from  play. 

Balance  Needed  in  the  Teacher.  The  teacher 
should  be  free  from  eccentricities.  The  schoolroom  is 
not  a  suitable  place  for  extremists  and  freaks.  The 
teacher  should  cultivate  breadth  of  view;  he  should 
train  himself  to  look  at  all  sides  of  a  question  with 
one  aim  in  view — to  find  the  truth.  He  should  value 
truth  higher  than  preconceived  doctrines  and  dogmas; 
his  convictions  should  be  subject  to  change  in  the 
light  of  new  facts.  The  teacher  of  this  state  of  mind 
is  likely  to  see  much  that  is  reasonable  and  plausible 
in  the  views  of  others,  although  they  may  be  different 
from  his. 

The  teacher  may  find  much  in  the  political  life  of 
the  country  to  form  convictions  quite  extreme  and 
opposite  in  their  nature.  One  set  of  facts  might  cause 
him  to  be  a  pessimist;  to  advocate  extreme  measures 
of  reform.  By  looking  into  the  question  more  deeply 
he  will  gather  much  to  temper  these  views. 

Neither  Too  Much  Work  nor  Too  Much  Play. 
There  are  usually  two  kinds  of  people  in  every  com- 
munity. One  devotes  too  much  time  to  sports  and 
the  other  devotes  too  much  time  to  work.  The 
teacher  should  avoid  either  extreme.  He  has  too  much 
work  employing  his  time  to  be  the  leading  spirit  in  all 
the  amusements  of  the  community;  he  should  be  first 
in  the  educational  activities  even  if  he  must  occasion- 
ally be  second  or  third  in  some  other  matters.  The 
relations  of  the  teacher  are  such  that  he  must  be 


206  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

known,  and  he  must  know  the  people  m  his  com- 
munity; in  order  to  do  this  he  must  frequently  leave 
his  home  in  the  evening  and  identify  himself  with  the 
social  affairs  of  his  community.  The  teacher  needs 
this  practical  touch  with  the  life  about  him  to  do  his 
best  work. 

Balance  as  to  Dress.  The  dress  of  the  teacher 
should  avoid  extremes;  it  is  expected  of  the  teacher 
that  he  be  clean  and  neat  in  dress,  but  not  extravagant. 
The  teacher  who  dresses  for  school  as  he  would  for  a 
party  becomes  at  once  conspicuous  and  is  the  subject 
of  ridicule.  This  attitude  toward  dress  gives  the 
public  the  impression  that  the  teacher  lacks  judgment; 
that  he  is  out  of  harmony  with  practical  things.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  teacher  who  is  careless  about 
dress,  who  wears  tattered  or  soiled  garments,  is 
regarded  as  below  the  standard  demanded  by  his 
profession.  Poor  dress  is  associated  in  the  minds  of 
many  with  low  culture  and  poor  breeding. 

Sanity  in  Religion.  The  teacher  needs  to  avoid 
extremes  in  all  things,  but  in  no  other  respect  does 
he  need  to  exercise  greater  care  than  in  his  religious 
views.  Common  observation  as  well  as  history  shows 
that  persons  will  practice  and  resort  to  the  greatest 
indiscretions  under  certain  forms  of  religious  convic- 
tions. This  does  not  mean  that  the  teacher  should  be 
lukewarm  in  his  convictions;  it  does  not  mean  that  he 
is  to  withhold  definite  expression  along  religious  lines. 
Indeed,  the  teacher  should  have  his  convictions  and 
have  the  courage  to  defend  them;  but  he  should 


THE  TEACHER  207 

recognize  that  his  duty  as  a  public  servant  in  the  school 
does  not  carry  with  it  the  responsibility  of  converting 
his  pupils  to  his  religious  views,  during  school  hours 
at  least.  He  is  the  teacher  of  all  the  children  of  every 
shade  of  religious  conviction;  to  use  school  time  to 
force  his  own  views  upon  the  children  of  those  who 
have  employed  him  for  another  purpose  is  distinctly  a 
misuse  of  school  time. 

It  may  be  urged  by  some  that  there  is  need  of 
greater  conviction  among  teachers  along  religious  lines 
to  change  the  "godless"  condition  now  existing  in  the 
schools.  The  criticism  here  suggested  arises  because 
of  a  misconception  of  the  nature  of  Christian  character. 
There  is  little  criticism  that  is  directed  against  the 
personal  qualities  and  ideals  of  the  teacher;  the  chief 
objection  is  raised  against  the  lack  of  formal  religious 
instruction  in  the  schools.  Such  instruction,  if  at- 
tempted, would  be  of  little  consequence,  and  under  the 
conditions  existing  in  our  schools  would  be  impossible 
under  the  limitations  which  would  of  necessity  be 
imposed  on  it.  The  teacher  exerts  his  influence  for 
good  to  the  extent  of  what  he  is,  more  than  by  what  he 
teaches  in  a  formal  manner.  There  are  opportunities 
in  almost  every  recitation  where  theteachermayinstruct 
in  reverence  for  God  more  effectively  than  in  any 
formal  exercise  especially  designed  for  the  purpose. 
The  teacher  exerts  his  influence  for  God  or  Satan 
whether  he  holds  in  his  hand  a  Bible  or  a  spelling  book. 

The  Teacher  a  Student  of  Himself.  One  needs  to 
be  a  close  observer  and  student  of  himself.  He  should 


208  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

be  quick  to  discover  his  weaknesses  that  they  may 
be  corrected.  The  railroad  train  which  makes  a  long 
trip  across  the  country  stops  at  intervals  to  be  in- 
spected to  detect  the  flaws  and  to  see  if  it  may  safely 
pursue  its  journey;  so  the  teacher  on  his  professional 
tour  needs  to  inspect  the  stability  of  his  views  that  he 
may  detect  evidences  of  weakness  and  correct  them. 
There  is  no  better  way  to  carry  on  this  examination 
and  inspection  of  self  than  to  read  good  educational 
literature  and  associate  with  those  of  high  standing  in 
the  profession;  and  there  is  no  quicker  way  to  start 
professional  decay  and  head  for  speedy  wreckage  than 
to  break  contact  with  these  influences.  Every  pro- 
fession, education  at  present  more  than  any  other,  is 
constantly  undergoing  changes  and  readjustments;  the 
teacher  who  ceases  to  weigh  the  evidence  presented 
constantly  on  educational  problems  soon  becomes 
hopelessly  out  of  harmony  with  the  trend  of  thought 
and  practice  in  his  profession. 

The  chief  objection  against  the  teacher  of  much 
experience  has  its  foundation  here;  there  is  nothing  in 
the  nature  of  teaching  which  should  not  give  a  distinct 
advantage  to  the  teacher  of  mature  experience  who 
has  followed  and  practiced  the  recent  doctrines  of  his 
profession. 

Adaptability  of  the  Teacher.  The  teacher  who 
changes  his  location  must  adapt  himself  to  his  com- 
munity; it  may  be  the  ideals  of  the  people  in  school 
matters  are  distinctly  below  even  a  fair  standard. 


THE  TEACHER  209 

Reformation  is  sometimes  a  slow  process,  and  the 
teacher  cannot  raise  the  standard  of  education  higher 
than  the  normal  growth  of  the  people  of  his  district 
along  educational  lines.  He  should  proceed  to  culti- 
vate a  better  sentiment  by  the  best  and  most  effective 
means.  It  is  useless  to  attempt  to  make  progress  in 
this  direction  through  faultfinding  and  coercion  of 
those  in  authority.  Men  are  usually  amenable  to 
reason,  and  the  teacher  who  presents  his  demands  in  a 
clear,  definite,  and  logical  manner  will  get  a  reasonable 
degree  of  recognition.  There  is  nothing  men  and 
women  think  more  of  than  their  children — all  the  talk 
about  the  supremacy  of  hogs,  cattle,  and  "the  Almighty 
Dollar"  notwithstanding.  They  will  make  any  provi- 
sion necessary  when  convinced  that  it  is  greatly  to 
their  interest  and  welfare.  Many  teachers  attempt  to 
get  desirable  results  in  poor  ways.  Thus,  they  spend 
their  own  salary  to  supply  some  need  about  the  school 
equipment.  These  practices  tend  often  to  perpetuate 
the  very  evil  which  makes  them  necessary.  Those  in 
authority  soon  form  the  conviction  the  school  "will  get 
along"  if  the  request  is  not  granted.  A  teacher  who 
has  succeeded  in  inducing  a  school  board,  which  has 
pursued  a  tight-fisted  policy,  to  make  a  single  sub- 
stantial purchase  for  the  school,  has  taken  a  long  step 
toward  establishing  a  new  and  better  policy  in  the 
management  of  school  affairs  in  the  future.  School 
boards  need  to  form  the  habit  of  making  regular 
annual  expenditures  for  equipment  and  improvements. 


210  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

Results  are  desirable,  but  the  greater  need  in  many 
communities  is  a  growth  of  new  ideals  and  attitudes  in 
the  control  of  the  schools. 

Being  Too  Sensitive.  It  is  possible  to  be  too 
sensitive  to  gossip  and  current  reports.  A  teacher 
rarely  becomes  so  nearly  perfect  that  some  one  will 
not  find  fault  and  assail  him.  Some  of  the  sharpest 
criticism  one  receives  is  often  the  direct  result  of 
doing  his  duty.  There  are  in  most  communities  a 
small  group  of  persons  whose  chief  business  seems  to 
be  "knocking  the  school."  The  teacher  as  a  public 
servant  may  expect  this  as  a  normal  part  of  his  expe- 
riences. Humiliating  things  will  be  said  about  him 
and  to  him;  some  of  these  will  be  the  direct  result  of 
pure  malice,  while  others  will  originate  from  ignorance. 

There  are  several  classes  of  school  cranks  to  be 
found  in  most  communities;  the  teacher  who  goes 
about  from  place  to  place  soon  learns  to  expect  them 
as  a  matter  of  course.  Among  these  he  may  expect 
to  find  the  spelling  crank,  the  arithmetic  crank,  the 
corporal  punishment  crank,  the  overworking-the- 
children  crank,  the  good-old-days  crank,  the  we-need- 
it-in-the-course  crank,  and  several  other  varieties. 
Most  of  these  are  comparatively  harmless  creatures 
to  the  teacher  who  does  not  take  them  too  seriously; 
upon  acquaintance  they  may  prove  to  be  quite  loyal 
to  the  teacher  in  his  work. 

Freedom  from  Cross  Grain.  Above  all,  the 
teacher  must  be  free  from  pessimism  and  chronic 
irritability.  These  strike  at  the  very  foundation  of 


THE  TEACHER  211 

his  success  and  his  usefulness.  With  this  disposition 
he  cannot  approach  those  in  position  to  aid  him,  he 
cannot  obtain  a  frank  expression  of  conviction  from 
persons,  and  he  creates  a  growing  spirit  of  opposition, 
which  weakens  all  his  policies.  A  teacher's  spirit  of 
approach  and  attack  in  school  matters  constitutes  a 
large  part  of  his  success  in  accomplishment. 

This  quality  in  the  teacher  usually  manifests  itself 
in  nagging,  scolding,  faultfinding,  and  misconstruction 
of  the  motives  of  pupils  and  others  with  whom  the 
teacher  deals.  It  expresses  itself  in  criticism  of  asso- 
ciate teachers  and  superiors.  The  teacher  begins  his 
school  with  a  tirade  against  the  inefficiency  of  the 
former  teacher;  he  gives  the  pupils  an  examination  to 
see  "how  much  they  know."  Later  he  accuses  the 
pupils  of  being  dumb;  he  threatens  to^send  them  back 
to  the  previous  grade;  he  blames  the  parents  for  their 
"shortsighted  indulgences."  All  that  is  needed  for 
transforming  such  a  teacher  from  a  weakling,  which 
he  almost  invariably  is,  to  a  teacher  of  superior 
strength,  is  to  direct  all  the  energy  consumed  in  this 
manner  into  efforts  for  more  efficient  teaching.  An 
inferior  workman  is  almost  always  detected  by  his 
hostile  attitude  toward  other  members  of  his  calling. 

Physical  Efficiency.  Physical  vigor  is  an  indis- 
pensable requirement  for  the  best  work  in  the  school- 
room. It  determines  largely  the  disposition  of  the 
teacher  and  his  attitude  toward  his  work.  No  teacher 
is  so  strong  that  he  might  not  dissipate  his  energies 
outside  of  school  hours  to  an  extent  that  he  is  unfitted 


212  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

for  efficient  work  in  his  school.  It  does  not  matter  as 
to  the  nature  of  the  enterprise  which  lays  claim  to  the 
teacher's  vigor;  the  effect  on  his  work  is  the  same. 
The  teacher  who  spends  his  energy  in  the  dance  hall, 
and  the  one  who  spends  his  in  long  hours  of  tense 
excitement  in  a  local  revival  meeting,  are  alike  unfit 
for  the  proper  discharge  of  their  duties  in  the  school- 
room; each  is  about  equally  at  fault.  It  is  not  insisted 
upon  here  that  the  teacher  should  never  attend)  a 
dance,  a  revival  service,  or  other  social  activity  in  his 
community  on  an  evening  preceding  a  school  day;  it 
may  be  good  school  policy  to  mingle  in  the  affairs  of 
one's  community  sometimes  when  the  teacher's  effi- 
ciency is  but  slightly  impaired  by  it,  but  to  practice 
this  dissipation  of  one's  energies  regularly  for  weeks 
and  months  cannot  be  justified  by  any  counter  claims. 
A  teacher  of  limited  energies  may  keep  himself  in 
condition  to  perform  a  high  class  of  service  by  a 
careful  conservation  of  his  strength.  This  will  require 
some  self-denial  in  the  participation  of  pleasures  at 
times,  and  will  necessitate  a  strict  conformance  to  the 
best  principles  he  knows  concerning  hygiene.  It  is 
possible  for  the  teacher  to  exhaust  his  energies  by 
overwork  outside  of  school  hours.  It  is  impossible  for 
a  teacher  to  sit  up  until  after  midnight  habitually  and 
be  able  to  do  his  work  efficiently  the  following  day. 
Much  of  the  time  consumed  by  the  teacher  in  correct- 
ing papers  could  be  easily  saved  if  he  arranged  his 
work  differently.  It  is  unnecessary  to  collect  each 
day  much  written  work  which  is  taken  up  by  teachers. 


THE  TEACHER  213 

To  look  over  every  problem  prepared  in  arithmetic 
each  day  is  a  waste  of  time;  the  same  is  true  of  much 
of  the  work  done  in  language.  The  teacher  should 
be  able  to  determine  from  his  recitations  the  needs  of 
his  pupils  to  a  large  extent;  by  some  supplemental 
work  he  should  be  able  to  eliminate  much  routine 
correction  of  papers.  There  is  no  work  a  teacher  can 
do  which  will  be  an  ample  compensation  for  his  lack 
of  proper  spirit  in  his  schoolroom. 

Scholarship  of  the  Teacher.  The  teacher  is  pre- 
sumed to  know  certain  facts.  Knowledge  is  his  chief 
stock  in  trade;  if  he  is  lacking  in  knowledge,  he  is 
unfitted  to  teach.  No  person  can  teach  all  he  knows; 
he  must  possess  a  much  greater  amount  than  he 
wishes  to  teach  in  order  to  teach  a  lesser  amount  to 
the  best  advantage.  The  teacher's  scholarship  needs 
accuracy  rather  than  breadth.  One  must  be  familiar 
with  the  details  of  the  subject  of  instruction  rather 
than  have  much  general  knowledge  of  many  subjects. 
A  teacher  may  know  trigonometry  or  calculus  and  yet 
be  a  failure  in  teaching  arithmetic  because  of  his 
unfamiliarity  with  it.  He  may  know  the  general 
history  of  the  world,  but  fail  in  teaching  the  history 
of  his  own  country  because  his  knowledge  of  it  lacks 
defmiteness.  He  may  know  several  languages  but 
be  ungrammatical  in  the  use  of  his  own.  The  teacher 
who  mispronounces  common  words  in  his  school  sows 
seeds  of  error  which  will  take  root  in  the  lives  of  those 
under  his  instruction,  and  these  errors  will  be  trans- 
mitted to  other  children  by  those  who  are  guided  by 


214  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

his  tuition.  Habits  of  incorrect  usage  which  are 
formed  in  early  childhood  are  eliminated  slowly  in 
later  life;  years  after  the  adult  discovers  his  mistakes, 
and  they  become  a  source  of  constant  embarrassment 
to  him.  A  student  once  entered  a  normal  school 
where  he  took  up  the  study  of  geography;  he  soon 
found  that  more  than  half  of  his  pronunciations  of 
geographical  names  were  erroneous.  He  pronounced 
them  as  he  was  taught  by  his  teacher  in  the  elementary 
school;  this  teacher  had  taught  in  the  common  schools  of 
his  county  for  twenty-five  years,  and  wasstill  teaching — 
sowing  the  seeds  of  error.  Correct  knowledge  re- 
quires no  more  effort  to  secure  it  than  does  incorrect 
knowledge,  and  to  supplant  error  with  accuracy 
is  more  difficult  than  to  secure  accuracy  at  the 
outset. 

Accuracy  of  scholarship  inspires  confidence  in  the 
leadership  of  the  teacher.  Pupils  have  a  high  regard 
for  those  who  are  superior  to  them  in  knowledge,  and 
they  aspire  to  become  like  them.  There  is  no  excuse 
for  the  ignorance  of  the  teacher  in  the  essentials  of 
the  subjects  he  teaches;  there  are  so  many  means  of 
enlightenment  open  to  the  teacher  of  the  present; 
information  is  so  cheap  and  it  is  so  easy  to  obtain 
quickly  and  in  abundance,  that  ignorance  is  synony- 
mous with  carelessness.  There  are  some  things  a 
teacher  is  not  expected  to  know,  but  to  be  compelled 
to  confess  ignorance  of  topics  closely  related  to  the 
work  in  hand  is  to  weaken  the  esteem  of  the  teacher 
on  the  part  of  the  pupils. 


THE  TEACHER  215 

If  one  desires  to  keep  familiar  with  certain  fields 
of  knowledge,  he  must  explore,  them  anew  at  certain 
intervals.  A  little  time  devoted  to  systematic  study 
will  keep  in  the  mind  many  facts  and  principles  which 
would  otherwise  cease  to  be  at  the  teacher's  command. 

Personal  Habits.  The  teacher  should  be  exem- 
plary in  his  habits;  he  should  be  an  example  worthy  of 
imitation  by  those  he  instructs.  It  often  happens  that 
the  youth  whom  he  instructs  have  improper  models 
to  follow  in  their  home  life.  Suppose  a  boy's  father  is 
given  to  the  use  of  intoxicating  liquor;  suppose  even 
that  he  is  an  inveterate  user  of  tobacco;  this  boy 
should  meet  somewhere  in  his  career  those  who  point 
him  in  a  new  and  better  direction.  There  may, 
perhaps,  be  habits  which  are  in  a  large  measure  harm- 
less in  themselves;  they  may  be  habits  which  a  large 
per  cent  of  men  could  practice  without  serious  conse- 
quences, but  these  habits  may  effectively  debar  men 
from  engaging  in  certain  other  callings.  It  is  increas- 
ingly apparent  to  the  close  observer  that  more  is  being 
constantly  demanded  of  every  one  as  to  his  personal 
habits.  The  use  of  liquor,  tobacco,  and  drugs  is 
growing  in  disfavor  with  those  who  are  employers  of 
men;  profanity  has  no  place  in  polite  company.  Fifty 
years  ago  it  was  common  for  teachers  to  chew  and 
smoke  in  the  schoolroom;  the  minister  of  the  gospel 
could  use  liquor  without  serious  impairment  of  his 
standing;  young  women  smoked  the  clay  pipe  without 
exciting  comment.  A  new  order  is  being  ushered  in; 
the  day  of  abstinence  is  at  hand;  the  demands  of  the 


hour  is  the  whole  man,  devoted  to  the  discharge  of 
the  duties  of  his  calling. 

Many  examples  might  be  given  to  illustrate  the 
growing  disposition  towards  questionable  habits.  A 
few  months  ago  a  committee  came  from  a  Western 
state  to  a  technical  school  in  the  Central  states.  They 
were  seeking  a  suitable  candidate  for  a  vacancy  then 
existing  hi  their  school.  They  were  anxious  that  no 
mistake  be  made  in  making  the  choice,  because  they 
wished  to  continue  the  service  indefinitely;  the  position 
could  pay  a  high  salary  and  could  offer  inducements 
equal  to  any  likely  to  come  from  other  places.  The 
president  of  the  school  visited  designated  a  young  man 
who  was  considered  the  best  in  point  of  native  ability 
there  was  in  the  school;  he  possessed  all  the  require- 
ments demanded  by  the  committee;  but,  said  the 
president,  he  smokes;  he  had  been  cautioned  frequently 
by  the  authorities  that  this  practice  was  not  to  his 
best  interest.  The  young  man  failed  to  be  convinced 
that  the  use  of  tobacco  could  be  a  serious  hindrance 
to  one  seeking  a  position  of  the  kind  he  desired;  he 
believed  in  "personal  liberty."  The  committee  re- 
sponded without  a  moment's  hesitation,  "We  cannot 
use  him;  show  us  your  next  choice."  The  committee 
also  believed  in  "personal  liberty."  The  young  man 
in  question  was  duly  informed  of  his  fate  at  the  hands 
of  the  committee;  in  twenty-four  hours  he  placed 
himself  on  record  as  a  non-smoker. 

One  of  the  most  eloquent  ministers  in  a  certain 
district  has  been  refused  promotion  year  after  year 


THE  TEACHER  217 

because  he  will  not  agree  to  give  up  his  pipe.  He  is 
exemplary  in  every  other  way  but  he  languishes  in  a 
small  town  at  a  starvation  salary  because  he  believes 
in  "personal  liberty."  He  could  easily  command  two 
thousand  more  in  salary  each  year  but  for  a  habit 
which  is  not  considered  becoming  in  a  minister — two 
thousand  dollars  a  year  for  the  "liberty"  of  smoking 
a  pipe  two  or  three  tunes  a  day.  The  three  greatest 
maxims  of  human  philosophy  were  enunciated  by 
Socrates,  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  Christ;  they  are, 
"Know  thyself,"  "Control  thyself,"  and  "Deny  thy- 
self." 

Spirit  and  Attitude.  It  behooves  the  teacher  to 
cultivate  a  good  spirit  and  attitude  of  mind.  These 
give  color  to  his  work  and  render  his  activities  pleasur- 
able instead  of  disagreeable.  It  is  easy  for  any 
worker  to  brood  over  his  imaginary  sacrifices  until  he 
is  convinced  that  he  is  a  martyr  to  his  vocation.  The 
teacher  needs  to  guard  against  the  encroachment  of 
this  conviction.  Nothing  unfits  the  teacher  so  quickly 
for  his  duties  as  this  gloomy,  foreboding  attitude. 
There  is  no  profession  attended  with  greater  charms 
and  beauties  than  teaching,  if  the  teacher  has  the 
insight  into  life,  and  if  he  understands  the  real  sig- 
nificance of  education.  The  field  of  the  educator  is 
inexhaustible;  to  study  the  child  mind,  to  learn  how 
to  approach  the  various  types  of  mind  and  disposition 
is  full  of  interest. 

The  spirit  and  attitude  of  the  teacher  determines 
the  character  of  the  record  he  makes  in  the  school. 


218  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

The  largest  asset  of  the  teacher  is  his  past  record.  No 
teacher  can  afford  to  do  less  than  his  best  at  all  times, 
for  selfish  reasons  if  for  no  others.  A  bad  record, 
especially  if  it  has  been  bad  because  of  indifference  and 
neglect  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  is  almost  a  permanent 
barrier  to  advancement.  The  supreme  test  of  a  good 
spirit  is  the  record  of  the  work  done  the  last  year  in  a 
school  when  the  teacher  knows  that  year  terminates 
his  work  in  that  community.  Many  teachers  break 
under  this  test.  The  teacher  is  paid  for  his  time  and 
his  best  efforts  in  the  school.  To  give  anything  less 
than  his  best  service  is  to  take  money  for  which  he 
has  not  given  value.  There  are  many  vicissitudes  in 
life;  no  teacher  can  say  with  surety  that  he  may  not 
at  some  time  in  the  future  wish  to  rely  upon  his  friend- 
ships and  his  record  of  service  in  a  community.  Aside 
from  these  personal  considerations,  every  one  possessing 
the  highest  grade  of  qualities  will  never  fail  to  do  his 
best. 

Congeniality.  A  large  part  of  the  teacher's  success 
comes  from  that  group  of  personal  qualities  which 
makes  him  an  agreeable  person  to  know.  We  seem  to 
like  some  people  instinctively  and  to  dislike  others. 
The  teacher  should  endeavor  to  cultivate  those  per- 
sonal qualities  which  tend  to  make  him  agreeable  to 
those  with  whom  he  must  deal.  Warmth  of  person- 
ality, agreeableness,  approachableness  are  invaluable 
qualities  in  the  teacher.  Some  boards  of  education 
prefer  to  rely  upon  these  as  a  basis  for  the  selection  of  a 
teacher  rather  than  upon  experience,  educational 


THE  TEACHER  219 

preparation,  and  recommendations.  The  element  of 
good  cheer  is  manifested  as  one  passes  an  acquaintance 
on  the  street.  Humanity  recoils  from  "cold-blooded" 
people,  from  grumblers,  and  from  pessimists.  A 
teacher  who  has  these  attributes  may  be  a  skillful 
instructor,  but  he  will  find  it  difficult  to  convince  his 
patrons  that  he  possesses  more  than  the  most  ordinary 
ability. 

The  voice  and  the  manner  of  speech  of  the  teacher 
are  sometimes  disagreeable.  He  becomes  misunderstood 
because  people  fail  to  discover  that  his  intentions  are 
good.  We  judge  the  spirit  of  people  very  largely  by 
their  voice  qualities  and  their  manner  of  speech.  The 
effect  of  the  voice  of  the  teacher  is  very  noticeable  in 
the  schoolroom.  Some  voices  seem  to  stir  rebellion  in 
the  pupils;  other  voices  are  so  pleasing  that  they  call 
out  co-operation  and  cheerful  obedience.  Older  people 
as  well  as  children  are  unconsciously  affected  in  this 
manner.  It  is  said  that  the  voice  of  Charming  was 
like  the  mellow  tones  of  a  harp.  The  story  is  told  that 
a  man  complained  to  him  about  Christ's  denunciation 
of  the  Pharisees.  Channing  read  the  Scripture  to 
which  reference  had  been  made;  after  listening  to  him 
read  the  passage,  the  man  said,  "If  that  is  the  way 
Christ  said  it,  I'll  withdraw  my  objection." 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  and  discuss  several  factors  that  make  the  work  of 
the  teacher  difficult. 

2.  Compare  the  relative  importance  of  the  teacher  with  the 
board  of  education,  the  kind  of  curriculum,  and  the  equipment. 


220  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

3    Show  what   qualities  of   mind  and  temperament   are 
desirable  in  a  teacher. 

4.  Discuss  proper  and  improper  dress  of  the  teacher. 

5.  What  care  is  needed  by  the  teacher  in  respect  to  his 
views  on  religion? 

6.  What  conditions  make  it  imperative  for  the  teacher  to 
read  professional  books  and  associate  much  with  members  of  his 
profession? 

7.  Speak  of  the  adaptability  of  the  teacher.  What  are  some 
of  the  objections  to  the  teacher  using  his  salary  to  purchase 
equipment  for  the  school? 

8.  In  what  ways  may  the  teacher  be  too  sensitive?    What 
should  be  his  attitude  toward  criticism? 

9.  What  is  the  effect  of  pessimism  and  chronic  irritability 
on  the  teacher's  work?    How  are  these  manifested  in  the  school? 

10.  Show  the  relation  of  physical  vigor  to  efficient  work  on 
the  part  of  the  teacher.    How  should  the  teacher  endeavor  to 
conserve  his  physical  energies? 

11.  What  is  the  importance  of  scholarship  for  the  teacher? 
What  should  be  the  nature  of  it?    Show  that  ignorance  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher  is  usually  synonymous  with  carelessness. 

12.  Why  should  the  teacher  be  exemplary  hi  his  habits? 
What  are  the  present-day  tendencies  and  requirements  as  regards 
personal  habits? 

13.  Discuss  the  spirit  and  attitude  of  the  teacher.    How  do 
these  affect  the  qualities  of  his  work?    What  is  the  supreme  test 
of  a  good  spirit  in  the  teacher? 

14.  Explain  the  importance  of  congeniality  as  a  quality  in 
the  teacher.    How  does  the  teacher's  voice  and  manner  of  speech 
affect  his  work? 


CHAPTER  XHI 
THE  TEACHER  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

Origin  and  Similarity  of  Problems.  The  problems 
of  the  teachers  are  very  much  the  same  in  every  com- 
munity. As  one  goes  about  from  place  to  place  he 
encounters  much  the  same  sort  of  pupils,  patrons,  and 
interests  in  one  locality  that  he  does  in  another.  There 
are  certain  types  of  persons,  traits  of  human  nature, 
and  general  ambitions,  well  known  to  the  teaching 
fraternity,  that  the  teacher  should  anticipate  in  a 
new  situation  as  much  as  he  would  expect  to  find  a 
grocery,  a  butcher  shop,  a  dry  goods  store,  or  a  post- 
office  in  the  community. 

Many  of  the  problems  of  the  teacher  originate 
from  his  own  personal  traits  and  peculiarities,  and 
others  arise  from  the  temperament,  peculiarities,  and 
ambitions  of  the  people  among  whom  he  labors.  The 
chief  thing  for  the  teacher  is  (1)  to  become  master  of 
himself,  to  eliminate  from  himself  those  personal 
habits,  traits,  attitudes,  and  eccentricities  character- 
istic of  him  which  put  him  in  discord  with  the  forces 
of  the  school;  and  (2)  to  learn  how  to  deal  successfully 
with  each  of  the  fixed  but  various  types  of  people 
found  almost  everywhere. 

Avoid  Hasty  Judgment.  It  is  never  a  good  policy 
for  the  teacher  to  form  his  opinion  of  a  community 
before  entering  upon  his  duties  in  it;  he  should  give 

221 


222  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

little  heed  to  reports  of  troubles  and  troublesome 
persons  encountered  by  his  predecessor.  A  pretty 
safe  policy  is  to  disbelieve  half  he  hears,  and  forget 
two- thirds  of  the  remaining  half;  what  remains  will  be 
found  amply  sufficient  for  all  practical  purposes. 
Neither  the  friends  nor  the  foes  of  a  former  teacher 
necessarily  become  those  of  his  successor.  The  teacher 
who  enters  upon  his  duties  with  a  clear  slate,  and  who 
judges  every  one  he  meets  on  his  merits  as  he  actually 
finds  them,  will  be  surprised  to  see  how  much  his 
classification  of  troublesome  persons  differs  from  that 
of  his  predecessor. 

It  is  a  common  experience  to  hear  from  very  con- 
servative and  intelligent  citizens  of  a  community  that 
certain  pupils  and  families  are  sure  to  cause  the  very 
worst  of  trouble  to  the  teacher,  only  to  find  upon 
better  acquaintance  that  the  prediction  was  wholly 
false,  and  that  these  supposedly  troublesome  persons 
are,  in  truth,  among  his  very  best  and  most  trust- 
worthy friends.  It  is  astonishing  how  much  evil  and 
how  much  antagonism  there  is  in  the  best  of  people 
when  the  right  sort  of  condition  exists  to  call  them 
into  action,  and  it  is  equally  astonishing  how  much 
genuine  good  there  is  in  the  worst  when  the  proper 
appeal  is  made  to  call  it  out.  The  teacher,  above  all 
others,  has  the  best  avenue  of  approach  to  these  oppo- 
site extremes  because  he  deals  with  that  which  lies 
nearest  the  heart  of  every  parent — his  own  child. 

The  Former  Teacher.  The  teacher  should  be  slow 
to  express  an  unfavorable  opinion  of  his  predecessor; 


THE  TEACHER  AND  THE  COMMUNITY     223 

there  is  seldom  a  teacher  so  inefficient  that  he  has  not 
at  least  a  few  strong  friends  and  admirers.  To  give 
offense  to  them,  even  if  there  should  exist  sufficient 
evidence  of  incompetency,  can  never  be  productive  of 
good  to  his  successor.  It  is  well  not  to  encourage 
gossip  about  the  frailties  of  a  former  teacher  of  the 
school.  It  usually  happens  that  the  first  person  to 
approach  the  new  teacher  with  a  complete  account  of 
injustice  and  incompetency  of  the  former  teacher  is 
the  first  to  gossip  about  the  new  teacher.  The  teacher 
should  rejoice  when  he  hears  his  predecessor  compli- 
mented, because  he  may  be  sure  that  these  compli- 
ments are  good  evidence  that  the  same  persons  will  not 
fail  to  value  properly  his  efforts  also. 

It  is  impossible  for  the  new  teacher  to  know  the 
conditions  under  which  the  former  teacher  has  labored; 
until  they  are  thoroughly  known,  it  is  impossible  to 
judge  accurately  the  character  of  his  work.  After  the 
teacher  has  been  in  the  community  a  year,  he  may 
know  more  of  the  conditions  which  have  influenced 
the  work  of  his  predecessor. 

Influence  in  the  Community.  The  teacher  should 
strive  to  be  in  favor  with  the  community.  He  should 
never  attempt,  of  course,  to  gain  esteem  in  any  cheap 
sentimental  way;  nor  should  he  endeavor  to  reform 
the  community  or  try  to  be  leader  in  everything.  Such 
a  course  is  sure  to  defeat  his  purpose;  but  he  should 
ingratiate  himself  with  the  community  by  his  genuine 
interest  in  its  life  activities,  and  by  becoming  ac- 
quainted at  first  hand  with  the  people.  He  may  thus 


224  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

learn  their  good  qualities  and  at  the  same  time  let  his 
own  qualities  be  known.  Most  teachers  have  suffi- 
cient good  qualities  to  succeed  in  their  communities,  if 
these  qualities  were  known.  How  often  an  entirely 
erroneous  opinion  of  a  teacher  prevails  in  a  community 
from  a  mere  lack  of  acquaintanceship.  No  plea  is 
made  here  for  contact  with  community  interests  in 
order  that  the  teacher  may  be  enabled  to  hold  his 
position  regardless  of  his  merits,  although  there  are 
many  instances  where  teachers  so  ingratiate  them- 
selves into  the  confidence  of  their  communities  through 
their  few  good  qualities  that  their  boards  of  education 
even  are  unable  to  dismiss  them  from  the  service, 
regardless  of  their  incompetency  in  the  schools. 

The  teacher  is  able  to  serve  the  community  best 
who  has  the  confidence  of  the  community.  No 
teacher  is  given  such  a  ready  response,  and  no  teacher 
gets  such  thorough  support  in  every  way  as  the  teacher 
does  who  mingles  in  the  affairs  of  his  community.  The 
teacher's  informal  discussion  of  school  policies  in  casual 
meetings  with  friends  and  patrons  often  carries  greater 
conviction  than  a  formal  discussion  can  at  a  regular 
board  meeting. 

The  Treatment  of  the  Teacher  by  the  Community. 
The  teacher's  rating  in  the  community,  and  the  rating 
of  the  community  by  the  teacher,  depend  almost 
entirely  upon  the  teacher.  A  teacher  often  goes  into 
a  community,  and  at  the  close  of  the  year  pronounces 
it  the  most  selfish  place  in  the  world;  he  says  the 
people  are  indifferent,  difficult  of  acquaintance,  that 


THE  TEACHER  AND  THE  COMMUNITY     225 

they  ignore  the  teacher  entirely,  and  that  they  make 
his  life  completely  miserable.  The  following  year 
another  teacher  takes  the  position  under  the  same 
conditions;  the  second  teacher  is  a  stranger;  he  is  no 
more  efficient  technically  than  the  first  teacher;  he 
rooms  at  the  same  place,  and  belongs  to  the  same 
church.  At  the  end  of  the  year,  the  second  teacher  is 
delighted  with  his  new  situation;  he  thinks  the  people 
of  the  community  are  exceedingly  kind  and  approach- 
able. What  makes  the  difference?  The  first  teacher 
closed  the  doors  of  his  room  each  evening,  Saturday, 
and  Sunday,  from  the  time  he  entered  the  community 
until  the  end  of  the  year.  He  waited  to  receive 
formal  calls  and  to  be  introduced  to  the  community 
when  he  should  have  taken  the  initiative.  He  availed 
himself  of  every  opportunity  to  leave  town  over 
Sunday  to  get  relief  from  "that  dead  place."  He 
speedily  formed  a  strong  dislike  for  the  place;  this 
attitude  of  mind  led  him  to  accumulate  an  abundance 
of  evidence  to  strengthen  and  support  this  false  con- 
clusion. The  second  teacher  soon  became  busy  with 
his  new  interests.  He  always  arranged  his  out-of- 
town  trips  when  there  was  a  lull  in  the  affairs  of  his 
community.  He  soon  thought  in  all  sincerity  that  his 
new  situation  was  a  model  one.  He  easily  minimized 
the  significance  of  unpleasant  incidents,  and  became 
alert  to  seize  upon  and  to  cherish  the  good  and  the 
wholesome. 

Teachers  in  rural  as  well  as  village  schools  will  find 
it  greatly  to  their  interest  to  acquaint  themselves  with ' 


226  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

the  families  directly  interested  in  their  schools.  People 
in  the  rural  communities  especially  are  most  hospitable; 
they  form  friendship  with  the  teacher  quickly,  and 
they  are  very  loyal  to  their  friends.  To  them,  there  is 
no  more  attractive  attribute  than  "common  as  can  be," 
and  there  is  nothing  they  abhor  more  than  "stuck  up." 
Peddling  Trouble.  The  teacher  should  refrain 
from  peddling  his  troubles;  many  of  the  petty  troubles 
that  annoy  the  teacher  would  remain  almost  entirely 
unknown  if  he  did  not  himself  magnify  and  perpetuate 
them.  There  is  no  business  entirely  free  from  un- 
pleasant aspects;  there  is  no  business  which  could 
continue  to  prosper  if  its  managers  advertised  the 
difficulties  of  the  firm.  If  a  physician  should  go  about 
telling  the  mistakes  he  has  made  from  month  to 
month,  the  deaths  resulting  from  errors  in  diagnosis, 
the  number  of  dissatisfied  patients,  and  the  number  of 
unsuccessful  treatments,  he  would  soon  so  completely 
discredit  himself  that  he  would  lose  his  entire  practice. 
If  the  minister  or  the  lawyer  kept  rehearsing  their 
mistakes  and  misfortunes,  they,  too,  would  soon  lose 
their  prestige  and  the  confidence  of  the  people.  Some 
of  the  very  worst  enemies  some  schools  have  are  the 
teachers  in  the  schools,  because  they  never  cease  to 
peddle  their  troubles  about  the  community.  They 
publish  the  commonest  difficulty,  often  giving  it  the 
dignity  of  a  matter  of  the  greatest  magnitude  by 
bringing  it  before  the  school  board.  No  member  of  a 
board  of  education  will  have  confidence  in  the  ability 
of  a  teacher  who  constantly  visits  his  place  of  business 


THE  TEACHER  AND  THE  COMMUNITY     227 

to  annoy  him  with  petty  troubles  of  the  school.  The 
teacher  should  be  able  to  meet  them  himself.  Members 
of  school  boards  have  their  own  troubles  and  do  not 
wish  to  bear  those  for  which  the  teacher  has  been 
employed  to  provide.  Imagine,  if  you  can,  the  disgust 
of  a  board  of  education  which  is  asked,  officially,  by  a 
principal  of  an  eight-room  school  to  pass  upon  the 
"high  crime"  of  Johnny  Smith,  age  ten,  who  is  guilty 
of  fighting,  writing  an  improper  note  at  school,  or 
throwing  a  stone  at  a  neighbor.  Such  offenses  need 
ample  attention,  but  not  at  the  hands  of  the  school 
board  in  ordinary  cases.  There  are  a  host  of  other 
troubles  which  right  themselves  if  they  are  just  let 
alone  for  a  few  days,  otherwise  the  teacher  should 
meet  them  without  asking  assistance. 

Long  Investigations.  The  teacher  often  errs  by 
instituting  long  investigations  of  trivial  matters.  This 
soon  becomes  the  current  topic  of  conversation  at 
school  and  in  the  homes.  Many  misrepresentations 
arise  and  a  larger  circle  of  persons  array  themselves 
against  the  teacher.  Soon  the  teacher  finds  himself 
in  opposition  to  the  community  and  unable  to  accom- 
plish anything.  The  teacher  need  not  act  in  haste, 
yet,  he  should  form  his  conclusions  quickly,  and  then 
should  take  definite  action.  If  he  cannot  determine 
the  truth  in  the  matter,  it  is  far  better  to  drop  the 
case  than  to  continue  investigating  for  weeks  until  the 
resulting  evil  is  worse  than  the  original  offense. 

A  certain  teacher  was  unable  to  decide  whether  a 
little  girl  eight  years  of  age  had  told  a  falsehood.  She 


228  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

investigated  the  case  for  five  days.  She  then  called 
the  child's  mother  to  school  to  argue  the  case  with  her; 
of  course  no  agreement  was  reached.  It  was  then 
decided  to  wait  till  the  father,  who  was  a  traveling 
man,  came  home.  The  plan  was  to  call  him  to  school 
that  all  the  "records  and  evidence"  in  the  case  might 
be  gone  over  completely.  At  this  point  the  teacher 
asked  the  superintendent  to  be  present  at  the  next 
"hearing,"  but  he  promptly  requested  her  to  drop  the 
whole  matter  at  once,  and  in  the  future  to  refrain  from 
magnifying  small  problems  of  school  management.  It 
is  evident  that  the  teacher  in  question  should  have 
decided  the  matter  the  first  day  without  outside  aid. 
If  she  was  unable  to  determine  the  facts,  a  general 
talk  would  certainly  have  been  ample  for  the  offense. 

Avoid  Factional  Strife.  The  teacher  should  skill- 
fully avoid  being  involved  in  factional  strife.  He 
should  guard  his  own  actions  and  especially  his  tongue 
to  avoid  being  quoted  by  one  party  to  another.  Often 
the  factional  differences  in  communities  originate  over 
the  most  trivial  matters;  petty  jealousies  of  family 
prominence  and  success,  marriages,  church  relations 
and  doctrines,  or  similar  matters  furnish  the  basis.  It 
is  very  seldom  that  there  is  any  great  principle  in- 
volved. The  teacher  is  the  servant  of  all  the  people, 
and  it  is  impossible  for  him  to  serve  the  educational 
interests  of  all  to  the  best  advantage  if  he  takes  sides 
in  an  unimportant  controversy. 

The  teacher  may  unconsciously  and  unintention- 
ally create  factional  differences  in  his  community  by 


THE  TEACHER  AND  THE  COMMUNITY     229 

giving  too  much  attention  to  certain  families  or 
interests  in  the  community.  To  see  a  teacher  exclu- 
sively monopolized  by  a  certain  family  or  small  group 
of  persons  indicates  a  wrong  attitude  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher.  This  policy,  if  persisted  in,  is  sure  to 
lead  to  dissatisfaction  with  the  teacher. 

Begin  Where  the  Community  Is.  It  is  impossible 
in  some  communities  to  do  at  the  outset  all  one  has 
been  able  to  do  in  some  other  community  where  the 
teacher  has  been  employed  for  several  years.  The 
teacher  who  has  enjoyed  a  season  of  confidence  in  one 
community,  who  has  had  great  liberties  in  purchasing 
supplies,  arranging  courses  of  study,  adopting  texts, 
beautifying  the  school,  and  making  other  improve- 
ments, is  frequently  disappointed  when  he  finds  none 
of  these  privileges  granted  him  in  his  new  situation. 
It  is  at  this  point  that  many  teachers  disagree  with 
their  boards  and  develop  serious  differences.  It  is 
useless,  however,  to  quarrel  with  school  boards  over 
matters  they  are  unable  to  endorse  after  a  plain 
presentation  of  the  facts  by  the  teacher,  regardless  of 
the  imperative  needs  of  the  school.  If  the  teacher 
is  not  too  hasty,  he  may  soon  lead  his  board  of  educa- 
tion to  adopt  his  measures,  which  at  first  seemed  hope- 
less. The  teacher  in  all  cases  must  begin  where  the 
community  is  and  make  gradual  progress  from  that 
point. 

Attitude  Toward  the  School.  The  teacher's  atti- 
tude toward  the  school  should  be  businesslike.  The 
teacher  is,  for  the  most  part,  his  own  boss;  this  is 


230  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

particularly  true  of  the  rural  teacher.  This  fact  should 
not  be  productive  of  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  respecting  the  discharge  of  his  duties.  The 
teacher  should  not  for  this  reason  feel  free  to  begin 
school  later  than  the  usual  hour,  to  close  earlier  than 
is  customary,  in  order  to  suit  his  personal  convenience, 
shorten  recesses,  omit  recitations,  devote  time  to  private 
work  during  school  hours,  and  do  many  other  things 
not  to  the  best  interest  of  the  school.  The  teacher 
should  conform  strictly  to  conventional  regulations  as 
to  the  time  of  beginning  and  closing  school.  He 
should  not  vary  from  these  regulations  a  minute 
except  in  extreme  cases.  He  should  give  his  time — 
every  minute  of  it — to  the  service  of  his  district. 
Writing  personal  letters  in  school,  reading  the  news- 
papers or  books,  entertaining  friends  or  conferring 
with  agents  should  never  occupy  the  teacher's  time 
during  school  hours.  It  often  happens  that  these 
irregularities  become  so  common  that  those  in  authority 
hesitate  to  re-employ  the  teacher  the  subsequent  year. 
School  boards  are  more  inclined  to  refuse  the  employ- 
ment of  a  teacher  than  to  make  complaint  regarding 
his  conduct.  The  teacher  who  conducts  his  school 
every  hour  of  the  day  in  a  manner  to  invite  inspection 
by  his  board  and  patrons  need  have  little  fear  concern- 
ing re-employment  and  satisfaction  with  his  services. 
The  Teacher's  Conduct.  The  eye  of  the  public  is 
constantly  upon  the  teacher.  For  this  reason  his 
conduct  at  all  times  must  be  such  as  to  meet  the 
highest  standard  required  of  a  teacher.  There  is  a 


THE  TEACHER  AND  THE  COMMUNITY     231 

standard  of  conduct  which  is  commonly  recognized  as 
befitting  a  profession.  Strangers  who  go  into  a  com- 
munity to  engage  in  the  practice  of  the  profession  are 
expected  to  conduct  themselves  in  accordance  with 
the  recognized  standard.  The  teacher  may  be  able  to 
do  many  things  in  his  home  community  without  excit- 
ing unfavorable  comment,  which  would  destroy  his 
influence  if  he  attempted  to  do  them  in  the  community 
in  which  he  becomes  a  teacher. 

A  certain  young  woman  went  into  a  community  to 
take  charge  of  a  school.  It  was  her  first  experience  as 
a  teacher.  She  had  not  yet  learned  that  in  assuming 
the  duties  of  the  teacher  she  had  incidentally  "fallen 
heir"  to  a  certain  traditional  standard  of  conduct  and 
decorum.  She  proceeded  to  live  the  free  and  simple 
life  of  her  former  days.  One  day  a  young  man  came 
along  the  street  on  a  motorcycle  and  asked  her  to  take 
a  ride.  Being  acquainted  with  the  young  man  and 
knowing  that  his  character  was  above  reproach,  she 
accepted  the  invitation  and  rode  behind  him  up  the 
main  street  of  the  village.  She  was  greatly  chagrined 
when  she  was  informed  by  one  of  the  lady  members 
of  the  board  that  the  little  episode  had  created  no  little 
unfavorable  comment  in  the  community,  and  it  would 
not  be  advisable  to  repeat  the  performance. 

Public  opinion  makes  it  necessary  for  the  teacher 
to  be  very  careful  about  forming  companionship  with 
persons  whose  reputation  is  in  the  least  unsavory.  An 
appearance  in  public  with  such  a  companion  places  the 
teacher,  although  she  may  be  entirely  innocent  of 


232  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

wrongdoing,  under  suspicion.  The  teacher  may  be 
led  to  form  warm  friendships  with  persons  whose 
reputation  is  questioned,  because  it  is  very  difficult  in 
many  instances  for  a  stranger  in  a  community  to  tell 
these  objectionable  persons.  It  may  be  they  occupy 
positions  of  honor  and  trust  in  the  community.  Often 
the  church  does  not  seem  to  recognize  the  inconsistency 
of  bestowing  its  blessing  upon  a  deacon  each  Sunday 
whose  presence  with  a  young  woman  would  jeopardize 
her  reputation.  It  is  evident  that  social  standing  is 
not  a  safe  guide  in  all  instances  for  the  teacher.  It  is 
usually  unsafe,  generally  speaking,  for  the  teacher  to 
form  close  friendship  with  persons  who  rush  to  monopo- 
lize her  friendship  as  soon  as  she  arrives  in  the  com- 
munity. There  is  always  much  unwritten  history  in 
every  community.  To  this  the  teacher  may  add 
another  chapter  by  "casting  her  pearls  before 
swine." 

Unusual  judgment  is  necessary  in  all  the  love 
affairs  of  the  teacher.  It  is  certainly  inadvisable  for  a 
teacher  to  keep  company  with  a  pupil  in  the  school. 
This  almost  always  creates  a  bad  spirit  in  the  schools 
and  in  the  community.  It  is  doubtful  if  teachers  in 
the  same  school  can,  under  ordinary  circumstances, 
keep  company  for  many  months  without  developing  a 
type  of  gossip  which  will  seriously  affect  their  useful- 
ness in  the  school.  If  the  love  affair  is  to  continue,  it 
is  better  for  the  teachers  to  work  in  different  com- 
munities or  get  married.  Love  affairs  and  harmonious 
schools  seldom  exist  together. 


THE  TEACHER  AND  THE  COMMUNITY     233 

Discretion  of  the  Teacher.  There  is  no  public 
servant  who  needs  to  practice  greater  caution  in  his 
statements  than  does  the  teacher.  His  comments  at 
school  and  in  the  community  are  repeated  over  and 
over.  His  position  gives  special  significance  to  his 
utterances.  Every  teacher  should  form  the  habit  very 
early  of  refraining  from  making  any  statement  to  any 
person  concerning  his  school  which  he  would  not  be 
willing  to  have  repeated  hi  every  home  in  the  com- 
munity. He  should  never  speak  slightingly  of  the 
defects,  frailties,  or  incapacities  of  any  child  in  his 
school.  He  should  never  make  comparisons  of  children 
in  the  school  to  the  humiliation  of  any  parent  or  his 
child.  There  is  often  much  history  connected  with 
defective  and  sluggish  children  which  would  completely 
change  the  attitude  of  the  teacher  toward  them  were 
it  known. 

Recently  a  little  girl  twelve  years  of  age  was  the 
trial  of  her  teachers.  She  was  unable  to  learn  as 
other  children  do.  She  stared  at  the  teachers  with 
the  characteristic  blankness  of  the  idiot.  The  teachers 
often  said  among  themselves,  "Do  you  know  they"- 
meaning  the  child's  parents — "think  she  is  smart?" 
Her  parents  were  of  average  intelligence,  and  they  had 
six  other  children  who  were  truly  brilliant  without  a 
single  exception.  One  day  the  mother  of  the  unfortu- 
nate child  came  to  the  home  of  the  superintendent  of 
schools  to  unburden  her  heart.  With  tears  in  her 
eyes  she  told  how  her  heart  had  ached  for  their  poor 
child  because  she  was  afflicted  beyond  all  earthly  skill 


234  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

to  remedy.  She  said,  "Of  course  we  do  not  expect  her 
to  accomplish  the  work  done  by  other  children.  God 
knows  that  she  was  the  brightest  of  all  our  children, 
but  at  the  age  of  five  she  took  scarlet  fever;  since  that 
time  our  hearts  have  been  wrung  with  sorrow  for  her." 
It  is  evident  that  such  a  child  win  have  trials  enough 
to  make  her  way  in  the  world  without  any  teacher  or 
other  person  pointing  out  her  misfortunes. 

Another  case  in  point  is  the  following.  A  little  girl 
entered  school  for  the  first  time  one  September  morn- 
ing; after  some  weeks  she  failed  to  make  proper 
progress,  and  besides  there  was  some  discrepancy  about 
the  name  she  gave  at  school.  Questions  failed  to 
give  sufficient  information;  the  superintendent  called 
at  her  home.  A  neat  little  one-story  building  was 
found,  which  was  occupied  by  a  washwoman.  He 
found  the  woman  pleasant  and  willing  to  relate  all  the 
circumstances  pertaining  to  the  child.  He  asked  her 
if  this  child  was  hers,  and  she  said  she  was  not.  Upon 
inquiry  as  to  the  name  of  the  child's  father,  a  name 
different  from  the  one  given  at  school  was  stated. 
"Why,"  asked  the  superintendent,  "does  she  take 
your  name?"  "Well,"  said  the  woman,  "it  is  this 
way;  her  father  lives  in  Xville;  he  drank  before  this 
child  was  born;  he  continued  to  drink  and  starve  his 
family  and  abuse  them  until  his  wife  became  insane; 
she  died  when  this  child  was  two  years  old.  I  took 
her  at  that  time;  after  she  came  to  live  with  me,  I 
treated  her  kindly  as  God  intends  that  all  children 
should  be  treated;  after  she  was  with  me  three  weeks, 


the  last  request  she  made  when  she  was  laid  in  her 
little  bed  at  night  was,  'You  won't  take  me  back  to 
Xville,  will  you?  I  couldn't  sleep  if  I  thought  you 
would.'  The  same  request  was  made  in  the  morning 
not  to  be  taken  to  Xville  to  live  with  her  brutal  father." 
Some  months  afterward,  the  child  asked  her  foster 
mother  if  she  would  not  call  her  by  her  own  name  and 
forget  her  father's  name.  "You  are  so  good,"  she 
said,  "I  should  just  like  to  grow  big  and  be  a  nice 
good  woman  like  you."  She  had  yielded  to  the  child's 
request  and  allowed  her  to  drop  her  real  name,  and 
why  not?  She  pleaded  with  the  child's  father  to  help 
her  buy  clothes  and  books  when  the  child  approached 
school  age.  She  said  to  him,  "I  have  to  work  hard  for 
my  living,  and  I  should  like  a  little  help  to  buy  the  things 
she  needs  for  school."  After  she  had  made  her  plea, 
he  put  his  hand  into  his  pocket  and  gave  her  a  nickel 
as  the  limit  of  his  obligation  and  possibility  toward 
the  child. 

The  disturbed  life  she  had  lived  had  deprived  her 
of  two  years  of  normal  growth.  Is  it  any  wonder  that 
her  normal  development  in  school  was  disturbed 
temporarily? 

Judge  not!    That  which  appears  to  thy  dim  eyes  a  stain, 
In  God's  pure  light  may  only  be  a  scar  from  some  well- won 

field, 
Where  thou  wouldst  only  faint  and  yield. 

The  False  Tongue.  The  teacher  is  likely  to  suffer 
in  most  communities  in  different  degrees  by  false 


236  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

statements  circulated  about  Him  and  his  work.  The 
teacher  should  realize  fully  that  he  is  a  public  servant, 
and  that  all  public  servants  are  subject  for  one  reason 
or  another  to  much  caustic  criticism;  most  of  it  is 
entirely  without  foundation;  evils  are  grossly  magni- 
fied, truth  is  distorted,  and  many  false  charges  are 
made.  It  is  doubtful  if  any  teacher  or  executive 
officer  of  the  schools  is  entirely  safe  from  this  evil. 
Recently  the  president  of  one  of  the  leading  univer- 
sities of  the  West  stated  to  his  graduates  on  com- 
mencement day  that  he  had  formed  the  conclusion 
many  years  before  that  it  would  be  impossible  for  him 
and  his  colleagues  to  attempt  to  answer  much  of  the 
criticism  against  the  university;  if  they  should  attempt 
to  do  it,  they  would  not  be  able  to  do  anything  else. 
The  largest  part  of  the  criticism,  he  said,  was  wholly 
false  and  without  the  slightest  foundation. 

When  one  enters  upon  teaching,  he  attempts  to 
serve  a  large  number  of  interests;  many  of  these  differ 
in  personal  motives  and  temperaments.  For  this 
reason  misrepresentations  and  criticism  become  a 
logical  part  of  the  teacher's  heritage.  The  teacher 
should  understand  that  this  is  a  part  of  his  lot — not  so 
bad  as  it  appears,  when  he  learns  its  real  importance. 
The  faultfinder  magnifies  the  extent  of  disfavor  into 
which  the  teacher  is  falling;  he  comes  to  the  teacher 
with,  "They  are  all  against  you;  everybody  is  dis- 
satisfied." But  when  the  teacher  asks  for  specifica- 
tions he  usually  finds  the  long  list  of  the  "dissatisfied" 
is  reduced  to  the  faultfinder,  bis  wife,  and  his  mother- 


THE  TEACHER  AND  THE  COMMUNITY     237 

in-law.  No  teacher  can  do  his  full  duty  at  all  times 
and  be  free  from  censure;  the  public  school  should 
stand  for  justice,  and  equality  of  privilege;  some 
persons  are  not  satisfied  with  this  standard,  but  it 
must  be  maintained  at  the  sacrifice  of  their  good  will 
if  it  is  necessary.  These  standards  are  endorsed  by 
the  great  majority  of  any  community,  and  any  teacher 
who  upholds  these  standards  is  usually  in  no  great 
danger  of  the  critical  minority  who  clamor  for  special 
dispensations. 

The  first  contact  with  the  principle  of  equality 
many  children  get  is  in  the  school.  A  little  boy  once 
lived  near  a  teacher  in  the  public  schools;  he  had  made 
her  acquaintance  long  before  he  started  to  school;  he 
was  delighted  to  think  he  would  have  Miss  X  for  his 
teacher.  After  his  first  day  at  school,  he  came  home 
much  disappointed;  his  mother  was  surprised  that  he 
showed  such  displeasure  at  the  very  start  and  asked 
him  what  the  trouble  was;  said  she,  "You  know  you 
like  Miss  X  so  much."  "Yes,"  said  the  boy,  "but 
she  treated  me  just  like  she  did  the  other  boys."  It 
should  be  said  of  children,  however,  that  they  are 
usually  less  desirous  of  special  favors  than  are  their 
parents  for  them. 

It  is  usually  a  bad  practice  for  the  teacher  to 
endeavor  to  run  down  false  reports  about  himself  and 
his  school.  There  is  no  person  who  is  gossiped  about 
so  much  as  the  one  who  is  greatly  annoyed  by  such 
gossip;  the  teacher  who  is  independent  enough  to  move 
right  along  without  comment  or  commotion  is  spared 


238  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

many  annoyances  that  would  otherwise  arise.  The 
teacher  who  exercises  good  judgment,  and  who  becomes 
sure  his  action  is  just,  and  then  acts  with  confidence 
and  firmness  is  not  often  seriously  disturbed  by 
opposition. 

The  Teacher's  Boarding  Place.  The  success  of 
the  teacher  is  influenced  very  much  by  the  character 
of  his  boarding  place.  It  is  impossible  for  a  teacher 
to  do  his  best  work  in  a  school  unless  he  is  provided 
with  proper  accommodations  at  his  boarding  place. 
The  public  have  little  appreciation  of  the  necessity  for 
daily  preparation  and  study  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 
If  the  teacher  boards  in  a  home  where  there  are 
children  and  where  his  school  work  must  be  prepared 
in  the  family  sitting  room,  it  will  be  impossible  for  him 
to  make  adequate  preparation  for  his  work.  The 
teacher  can  afford  to  pay  extra  for  a  private  room  for 
study 

Some  teachers  need  to  be  cautioned  about  repeating 
statements  made  by  members  of  the  family  at  their 
boarding  place.  One  thoughtless  teacher  may  spoil 
the  opportunities  in  a  community  for  other  teachers. 
It  is  this  almost  universal  fear  of  publicity  of  private 
affairs  that  makes  so  many  families  hesitate  to  admit 
the  teacher  into  their  home  to  room  and  board. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  common  conditions  does  the  teacher  find  in  differ- 
ent communities?  How  can  he  best  meet  these  conditions? 


THE  TEACHER  AND  THE  COMMUNITY     239 

,  2.  What  should  be  the  attitude  of  the  teacher  toward  the 
friends  and  foes  of  his  predecessor? 

3.  Why  should  the  teacher  be  cautious  in  his  criticism  of  his 
predecessor? 

4.  In  what  manner  and  for  what  purpose  should  the  teacher 
try  to  ingratiate  himself  with  the  community? 

5.  Show  how  the  attitude  of  the  teacher  and  his  practices 
influence  his  standing  in  the  community.    How  do  these  affect 
the  teacher's  estimate  of  the  community? 

6.  Why  should  the  teacher  avoid  peddling  his  troubles? 
To  what  extent  should  he  try  to  manage  the  school  without 
assistance  from  the  board  of  education? 

7.  What  is  the  objection  to  long  investigations  of  pupils' 
derelictions? 

8.  How  may  the  teacher  usually  keep  himself  free  from 
factional  strife? 

9.  How  may  the  teacher  lead  a  backward  community  to 
better  things  educationally?    What  method  is  usually  a  failure 
in  this  respect? 

10.  Discuss  the  attitude  of  the  teacher  toward  his  school. 
Point  out  common  ways  in  which  teachers  often  subordinate  the 
interests  of  their  school  to  their  personal  interests. 

11.  Compare  the  standard  of  conduct  of  the  teacher  with  that 
of  persons  in  other  professions.    To  what  extent  is  the  conduct  of 
persons  prescribed?     How  does  this  often  vary  in  different 
communities  and  different  countries? 

12.  Why  should  the  teacher  be  careful  as  to  the  character  of 
his  companions?    Why  is  it  sometimes  difficult  to  form  correct 
judgments    in    this    matter? 

13.  Discuss  the  inadvisability  of  a  teacher  keeping  company 
with  a  pupil  of  the  school. 

14.  Why  should  the  teacher  exercise  great  care  in  all  of  his 
statements? 

15.  Explain  the  origin  of  a  large  part  of  the  criticism  of  the 
teacher.    To  what  extent  should  it  be  ignored?    How  should  it 


240  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

sometimes  be  met?  Why  should  the  teacher  refuse  to  mete  out 
special  favors  for  the  sake  of  the  good  will  of  certain  persons  in 
the  community? 

16.  What  is  the  importance  of  a  suitable  boarding  place  for 
the  teacher?  What  care  must  the  teacher  exercise  at  his  boarding 
place?  What  care  away  from  the  boarding  place  with  reference 
to  it? 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  PARENT'S  RESPONSIBILITY 

THE  rearing  and  training  of  a  child  is  the  most 
complicated  and  uncertain  of  human  tasks.  Many 
elements  enter  into  this  training,  but  there  is  no 
element  which  equals  in  importance  the  influence  of 
the  parent.  This  has  been  recognized  for  centuries  in 
different  countries  among  peoples  of  widely  different 
customs  and  ideals.  In  China  and  ancient  Sparta  the 
parent  suffered  punishment  for  the  misconduct  of  the 
child;  even  in  our  own  country  the  parent  is  legally 
liable  for  misdemeanors  of  his  children.  It  matters 
very  little  what  the  other  elements  are  which  have  to 
do  with  the  child's  training:  an  unfit  parentage  together 
with  the  constant  improper  home  surroundings,  has  a 
strong  tendency  to  neutralize  their  effects.  Life  is, 
after  all,  only  the  resultant  of  the  forces  which  pull 
upon  it.  We  are  often  vexed  because  some  children  do 
not  respond  to  their  apparent  advantages  and  oppor- 
tunities, yet  if  we  knew  the  influences  which  were 
warping  and  twisting  their  growing  characters  out  of 
harmony  with  our  guidance,  the  reason  would  be 
apparent. 

Parent  Responsible  for  the  Child's  Physical  Nature. 
The  parent  is  responsible  in  a  large  measure  for  the 
child's  physical  characteristics.  In  a  large  degree  these 

241 


242  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

come  to  the  child  through  inheritance,  but  the  habits 
of  the  child  and  the  conditions  under  which  he  lives 
contribute  much  to  his  physical  energies.  A  great 
part  of  the  welfare  of  children  is  summarized  by  the 
terms  cleanliness  and  purity.  The  child  must  have 
clean  food  to  eat,  clean  air  to  breathe,  a  clean  body  to 
do  the  bidding  of  the  soul,  and  pure  thoughts  to  stimu- 
late his  mental  and  moral  activities.  These  things 
are  elemental,  but  they  are  as  fundamental  as  the 
presence  of  the  vital  organs  in  the  child's  body.  It  is 
exceedingly  difficult  to  impress  the  general  public 
sufficiently  with  the  importance  of  these  matters,  to 
induce  strict  application  of  these  principles  in  daily 
practice.  The  State  Board  of  Health  in  Illinois  has 
prepared  an  exhibit  which  it  has  sent  to  various  parts 
of  the  state  in  an  endeavor  to  impress  the  public  with 
the  extreme  importance  of  practicing  certain  elemental 
principles  of  sanitation  with  which  every  child  is 
familiar.  The  main  difficulty  with  us  today  is  not  so 
much  a  lack  of  knowledge  of  what  should  be  done  as 
it  is  to  put  into  daily  practice  the  things  we  know. 
Both  parents  and  teachers  are  long  on  knowledge  and 
short  on  practice.  Recent  studies  among  school 
children  has  convinced  us  that  much  of  the  child's 
dullness  in  school  and  his  unsatisfactory  progress  are 
traceable  to  physical  conditions  which  are  largely 
within  the  control  of  the  school  and  the  home. 

Parent  Responsible  for  the  Child's  Moral  Nature. 
The  child's  moral  nature  grows  out  of  his  training. 
The  teacher  has  a  strong  suspicion  that  some  of  it  is 


THE  PARENT'S  RESPONSIBILITY          243 

inherited  in  a  good  deal  the  same  way  that  the  child 
inherits  the  color  of  his  skin  and  his  stature.  We 
express  this  opinion  by  saying,  "He's  a  chip  off  the 
old  block."  Some  children  are  ruined  before  they  are 
born,  and  some  are  ruined  after  they  are  born,  and 
some  have  the  disadvantage  of  the  two  misfortunes. 

The  teacher  will  find  in  his  experience  many  cases  of 
this  character;  he  must  accept  them  as  mere  incidents  of 
his  profession,  and  treat  them  in  the  most  effective 
way  possible  under  the  circumstances  surrounding  him 
in  the  school  and  the  community.  There  is  a  limit 
to  a  teacher's  endurance;  when  a  certain  point  is 
reached  in  the  amount  of  energy  and  time  expended 
by  a  teacher  to  train  and  discipline  a  pupil,  the 
offender,  as  a  mere  matter  of  economy  and  justice  to 
other  pupils,  should  be  removed  from  the  school. 

Responsibility  for  Control.  The  most  elemental 
qualification  for  the  parent  is  power  of  control.  It  is 
very  amusing  and  frequently  disgusting  to  see  the 
total  lack  of  control  some  parents  possess.  A  very 
common  experience  for  the  teacher  is  to  receive  a 
request  from  a  parent  to  compel  from  the  child  certain 
conduct  that  lies  wholly  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
parent.  The  child  who  causes  the  teacher  trouble  is 
usually  the  child  who  has  not  learned  obedience  at 
home.  If  it  were  not  for  the  school,  some  children 
would  never  know  the  meaning  of  obedience  to  author- 
ity. Sad  and  unfortunate  is  the  lot  of  the  child  who 
may  not  learn  obedience  at  school;  and  this  often, 
because  of  an  incompetent  teacher,  or  one  who  is 


244  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

trying  out  a  miracle  in  developing  "spontaneous 
obedience  to  authority."  There  is  no  better  way  yet 
discovered  for  the  rank  and  file  of  teachers  to  train  a 
law-abiding  citizen  than  to  require  obedience  in  the 
schoolroom. 

Both  parents  should  be  in  accord  as  to  their 
methods  of  control;  if  they  are  unable  to  agree  on  the 
number  of  ounces  in  a  pound,  they  should  agree  in 
their  methods  of  controlling  their  children.  It  is 
impossible  to  secure  obedience  at  home  if  one  parent 
hides  the  misconduct  of  the  child  from  the  other. 

The  Parent's  Example.  The  parent  influences  the 
child  more  by  his  example  than  he  does  in  any  other 
way.  An  ounce  of  example  is  worth  a  million  tons  of 
advice  and  beautiful  little  moral  gems.  Example  is 
not  something  to  be  put  on  by  the  parent  as  he  would 
an  evening  suit,  just  for  the  occasion;  it  must  be  a 
daily  raiment.  Mere  example  is  a  wooden  thing,  and 
it  deceives  no  one  but  the  one  who  attempts  to  play 
the  trick.  But  a  genuine  life  lived  before  the  child 
because  the  parent  believes  in  it  as  the  best  for  him 
as  well  as  for  his  children  is  an  influence  for  good 
which  overshadows  all  other  influences.  If  a  parent 
uses  profanity  in  his  home,  his  child  is  not  to  blame  if 
he  uses  profanity  outside  the  home;  if  the  parent  lies 
to  gain  his  ends  in  business,  he  should  not  blame  his 
child  for  lying  to  gain  his  ends  against  his  parents — 
this  is  business,  too,  from  the  child's  point  of  view. 
The  child  does  not  care  what  his  parents  preach;  it  is 
conduct  that  counts  with  him.  He  soon  learns  that 


THE  PARENT'S  RESPONSIBILITY          245 

there  is  a  wide  difference  between  the  theoretical 
world  of  conduct,  and  the  real  practical  world  of 
conduct  in  which  he  lives;  he  begins  to  make  the  adjust- 
ment to  the  practical  world.  The  parent  must  have 
a  care  that  these  two  worlds  are  not  widely  different 
in  his  own  life.  A  child  is  not  deceived  long  by  pre- 
tense. We  need  more  parents  and  others  who  have 
the  courage  to  practice  what  they  so  glibly  prescribe 
to  children.  We  often  speak  of  the  child  problem  and  how 
to  solve  it;  but  a  large  part  of  the  child  problem  is  the  man 
problem,  the  woman  problem,  the  teacher  problem. 

The  influence  of  example  is  indicated  in  a  homely 
way  by  the  following  incident.  A  father  of  two  sons, 
aged  three  and  five,  respectively,  was  an  inveterate 
user  of  tobacco.  When  the  boys  climbed  upon  his 
knee,  he  would  put  them  down  once  in  a  while  and  run 
to  the  spittoon  or  out  of  doors,  muttering,  "I've  got 
to  spit."  One  day  when  the  pastor  was  there,  he 
remonstrated  with  the  father  for  the  example  he  was 
setting  for  his  boys.  He  said,  "Don't  you  know  you 
are  setting  them  an  example  in  the  excessive  use  of 
tobacco?"  As  the  pastor  said  this  he  pointed  to  the 
opposite  side  of  the  room,  where  the  older  boy  was 
holding  the  younger  on  his  lap.  "Oh,  they  will  do  all 
right,  they  are  young  yet;  they  don't  notice,"  he  said. 
Just  then  the  older  boy  shoved  the  younger  from  his 
knee  and  ran  to  the  door  saying,  "I've  got  to  spit." 

If  the  example  set  by  the  parent  were  no  worse 
than  the  case  mentioned,  there  would,  perhaps,  be  no 
cause  for  serious  alarm  for  the  children;  but  it  is 


246  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

otherwise.  The  greatest  misfortune  some  children 
have  is  that  they  have  such  pitiful  specimens  for  their 
fathers,  and  the  greatest  evil  following  the  fact  is  that 
the  children  are  wholly  unconscious  of  the  certain  road 
to  ruin  their  fathers  are  leading  them.  A  father  came 
into  my  office  a  few  weeks  ago  with  his  little  boy,  a 
lad  of  eleven  years  of  age.  He  frequently  boasted 
that  he  was  nothing  but  a  drunken  painter,  that  he 
was  not  an  especially  bad  man,  but  he  would  "drink 
whiskey  when  he  had  a  chance."  His  drinking  had 
already  discredited  him  with  all  the  first-class  painters 
in  the  city,  but  he  seemed  to  get  real  satisfaction  out 
of  his  dissipation;  his  little  boy,  a  rosy-cheeked  little 
fellow,  smiled  with  evident  pride  at  each  reference  of 
his  father  to  his  desire  for  drink.  The  destiny  of  a 
boy  reared  by  such  a  father  is  pretty  certain;  any  boy 
who  starts  life  with  the  view  that  strong  drink  is 
desirable,  that  it  will  not  block  his  way  to  all  honorable 
employment,  has  failed  to  secure  the  most  funda- 
mental principle  for  a  successful  career.  There  is  a 
very  small  place  in  our  economic  life  for  the  man  who 
mixes  drinks  and  business,  and  such  men  are  yielding 
constantly  more  and  more  to  sober  men.  It  is  a  rule 
in  one  of  the  largest  industries  of  the  United  States 
that  for  the  first  offense  in  the  use  of  liquor  the  employee 
is  laid  off  thirty  days;  for  the  second  offense  he  is  laid 
off  sixty  days,  and  for  the  third  offense  he  is  per- 
manently discharged. 

There  is  no  question  asked  by  employers  so  fre- 
quently as  the  question  of  sobriety;  this  is  not  a  matter 


THE  PARENT'S  RESPONSIBILITY          247 

of  positive  drunkenness  with  most  employers;  they 
demand  that  their  employees  abstain  entirely  from  the 
use  of  liquor.  If  children  could  be  convinced  of  the 
extreme  importance  of  living  a  temperate  life  it  would 
contribute  more  than  many  pages  of  books  to  their 
success  and  efficiency. 

Effect  of  Parent's  Attitude.  Children  are  imitators; 
they  adopt  quickly  the  attitudes  and  opinions  of  their 
parents  and  others.  The  child's  attitude  toward 
truth  is  determined  very  largely  by  the  stand  his 
father  takes  in  the  thousands  of  instances  that  come 
up  in  the  life  of  every  family;  the  attitude  of  the 
parent  which  is  expressed  unconsciously  and  incident- 
ally in  conversation  takes  root  in  the  life  of  the  child 
more  deeply  than  formal  attempts  of  the  parent  in 
moral  training.  There  is  more  moral  character  formed 
in  the  unguarded  moments  around  the  family  table 
than  anywhere  else  in  the  world.  It  is  here  that  the 
conversation  is  free,  and  it  is  here  that  the  real  life  of 
the  parent  is  expressed.  It  is  here  that  the  boy 
learns  his  first  lessons  in  politics  and  religion  and  his 
doctrines  concerning  wealth  and  a  host  of  other 
matters  which  have  to  do  with  life.  These  lessons 
more  or  less  unconsciously  taught  by  the  parent  take 
a  deep  hold  on  the  life  of  the  child  because  they 
spring  spontaneously  from  the  daily  experiences 
of  the  family  life  and  because  of  the  deep  sin- 
cerity which,  for  this  reason,  attends  them.  If  the 
parent  shows  in  these  informal  conversations  how 
he  surreptitiously  varies  from  truth,  and  schemes 


248  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

to  win  in  his  affairs,  very  soon  the  child  learns  to  do 
likewise. 

Parents  often  make  deep  impressions  when  they 
least  suspect  it.  This  is  the  reason  the  "family 
skeleton"  is  hauled  out  so  frequently  by  the  child. 
A  little  girl  recently  held  up  her  hand  and  said  she 
could  spell  whiskey,  because,  she  said,  "I  see  that  on 
papa's  bottle  every  day."  Her  father  happened  to  be 
a  very  prominent  deacon  in  the  church.  Another  child 
in  the  same  room  heard  her  teacher  scolding  some 
little  boys  for  swearing;  she  begged  the  teacher  to 
swear  just  a  little.  She  said,  "I  want  to  know  how  it 
sounds."  One  does  not  need  to  know  much  more 
about  the  father's  habits  in  that  home.  In  the  Sunday- 
school  class  the  teacher  told  the  children  about  the 
Egyptians,  and  she  stated  incidentally  that  they  buried 
their  kings  in  the  pyramids.  One  little  girl  inno- 
cently inquired,  "Where  do  they  bury  their  jacks?" 

Responsibility  for  Attendance  at  School.  Regular 
attendance  at  school  is  fundamental;  it  is  impossible 
to  instruct  an  absent  pupil.  Unnecessary  absence  is 
one  of  the  school's  greatest  obstacles  in  the  instruction 
of  some  pupils.  Attendance  at  school  is  largely  a 
habit,  and  nonattendance  is  a  habit  easily  formed. 
Parents  sometimes  labor  under  the  impression  that 
the  way  to  make  attendance  at  school  agreeable  to 
the  child  is  by  permitting  occasional  absence.  Occa- 
sional absence  has  just  the  opposite  effect:  it  culti- 
vates a  desire  for  more  absence,  and  increases  the 
child's  dislike  for  school.  Some  of  the  most  bitter 


THE  PARENT'S  RESPONSIBILITY          249 

disappointments  come  to  parents  who  practice  the 
policy  of  occasional  absence.  A  well-to-do  mother 
began  to  practice  this  policy  with  her  son  when  he 
reached  the  high  school.  She  thought  that  permitting 
him  to  remain  out  of  school  a  day  in  two  weeks  would 
make  very  little  difference  in  his  progress,  and  the 
vacation  would  keep  the  school  tasks  sufficiently 
tempered  so  that  her  son  would  stay  in  school  until  he 
finished  the  course.  After  the  first  month,  the  boy 
asked  for  another  occasional  day  for  vacation,  which 
was  granted;  his  demands  continued  to  increase 
slowly  until  his  mother  began  to  foresee  the  danger 
point;  but  the  desire  for  relief  from  school  had  taken 
a  firm  hold  on  the  boy,  and  he  was  not  to  be  persuaded 
to  yield  his  request.  The  result  was  a  shift  by  the 
mother  to  the  policy  of  bribing  with  material  rewards 
for  attendance  at  school.  This  new  inducement  kept 
the  boy  in  school  until  the  end  of  the  year.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  next  year  the  reward  had  to  be  in- 
creased in  order  to  get  him  to  enter  school;  his  dislike 
for  school  continued  to  increase  until  he  positively 
refused  to  enter  school  at  any  price. 

Entering  Children  Too  Young.  The  parent  is 
frequently  responsible  for  the  child's  presence  at 
school  before  the  legal  age.  Experience  shows  clearly 
the  necessity  of  verifying  the  ages  of  some  children 
before  admitting  them  to  school.  Parents  often  fail 
to  understand  that  a  child  who  enters  school  under 
age  is  at  a  disadvantage;  they  do  not  see  why  the 
child  should  not  enter  at  one  age  as  well  as  another. 


250  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

Some  parents  are  anxious  to  enter  their  children  early 
in  order  to  be  relieved  of  their  annoyance  at  home. 
A  little  girl  brought  her  younger  brother  to  school  the 
first  day  and  opened  the  primary  door  and  turned  him 
in,  and  remarked  at  the  same  time,  "I  tell  you  ma's 
glad  to  get  rid  of  him."  When  one  reads  in  the  paper 
the  observation  of  the  "far-seeing  editor"  about  the 
parent  standing  in  the  doorway  watching  with  stream- 
ing eyes  the  departure  of  the  little  one  from  the  home 
to  the  school  on  the  first  day,  one  is  inclined  to  think 
that  the  experience  is  quite  a  myth  in  some  few 
instances. 

Knowledge  of  the  Child.  Every  parent  should 
know  his  own  child;  it  is  usually  true  he  is  likely  to 
overestimate  his  child.  In  most  cases  the  child  knows 
the  parent  better  than  the  parent  knows  the  child. 
The  parent  should  know  the  natural  ability  of  his 
child  as  compared  with  that  of  other  children.  The 
child  easily  deceives  his  parent  with  his  "superior 
ability"  claim.  There  is  no  story  that  will  go  down 
the  average  parent  so  readily.  A  mother  comes  to 
the  teacher  and  says  that  evening  engagements  do  not 
affect  the  work  of  her  boy  because  he  "gets  his  work 
so  easily."  The  results  at  the  end  of  the  semester 
show  the  shallowness  of  this  contention.  Even  then, 
however,  the  parent  is  likely  to  believe  the  teacher  is 
at  fault  rather  than  the  lack  of  application  on  the  part 
of  her  boy. 

The  parent  should  know  the  habits  of  his  child; 
many  children  go  wrong  because  of  the  extreme  care- 


THE  PARENT'S  RESPONSIBILITY          251 

lessness  of  their  parents  as  to  their  associates  and  of 
ignorance  as  to  the  habits  they  practice.  Every 
parent  should  think  that  his  own  child  is  capable  of 
and  is  likely  to  be  doing  what  he  knows  his  friends  and 
associates  do.  The  teacher  is  often  amused  at  parents 
who  tell  them  that  this  boy  and  that  chew  tobacco 
and  smoke,  but  that  their  boys  never  do  things  like 
that;  at  the  same  time  the  teacher  knows  that  the 
boy  of  the  boasting  parent  is  the  worst  of  the  lot. 

The  parent  should  know  his  own  child  in  respect 
to  his  industry  and  trustworthiness.  It  frequently 
happens  that  a  father  has  his  child  under  his  own  roof 
daily  for  sixteen  years,  and  never  learns  how  unreliable 
he  is  until  he  sends  him  off  to  college  and  he  has 
squandered  a  thousand  dollars  in  dissipation.  This 
simple  knowledge  almost  every  one  of  his  teachers 
could  have  imparted  without  cost  to  the  parent.  It 
is  generally  true  that  a  boy  who  fails  to  do  his  duty 
in  the  home  school  is  not  likely  to  do  creditable  work 
when  sent  away.  There  is  a  class  of  schools  that 
thrive  by  deceiving  parents  as  to  the  kind  of  work 
accomplished  by  their  children.  Boys  and  girls  sent 
to  these  schools  are  always  given  high  marks  regardless 
of  their  merits.  Some  parents  never  discover  the 
deception;  others  do  after  a  few  months. 

The  Child  Outside  of  School  Hours.  The  habits 
and  practices  of  the  child  outside  of  school  hours 
determine  very  largely  his  progress  in  school.  The 
attitude  of  the  child  toward  the  regulations  of  the 
school  are  determined  in  a  large  measure  by  his  asso- 


252  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

ciations  and  practices  outside  of  the  school.  It  does 
little  good  for  the  parent  to  complain  about  the  con- 
duct of  his  boy  when  he  lets  him  run  the  streets  at 
night.  When  one  sees  a  pale-faced  little  boy  with  a 
big  pipe  in  his  mouth  loitering  along  the  street  and  in 
questionable  company,  it  is  evident  that  something  is 
wrong  with  his  home  life.  A  parent  who  has  such  a 
boy  would  do  well  to  take  a  vacation  from  all  his 
other  duties,  if  necessary,  until  he  has  changed  the 
current  in  the  life  of  his  child.  There  is  no  shorter 
route  to  worthlessness  than  street  loitering,  bad  com- 
pany, and  the  practice  of  evil  habits.  In  every  village 
there  are  many  youths  who  do  not  seem  to  be  under 
the  authority  of  anybody.  A  visit  to  the  larger  cities 
on  Saturday  evenings  is  sufficient  to  convince  one  that 
hundreds  of  youths  slip  into  the  pool-rooms  and 
other  places  of  degradation  or  questionable  resorts 
through  lax  parental  supervision. 

Attempting  Good  Things  in  Poor  Ways.  It  is  easy 
to  attempt  to  do  a  good  thing  in  an  extremely  poor 
way.  There  are  some  methods  and  promises  which 
aggravate  the  very  evil  they  are  supposed  to  prevent. 
A  good,  well-meaning  mother  was  very  anxious  that 
her  son  refrain  from  the  use  of  tobacco.  She  said, 
"Now,  John,  if  you  will  not  smoke  until  you  are 
eighteen  years  old,  I'll  buy  you  a  nice  meerschaum 
pipe."  Of  course  the  natural  thing  for  that  boy  to  do, 
and  which  he  did,  was  to  qualify  during  the  interven- 
ing years  for  the  pipe,  concealing  the  act  from  his 
mother. 


THE  PARENT'S  RESPONSIBILITY          253 

A  father  complained  bitterly  because  his  boy  was 
arrested  on  Hallowe'en  for  the  depredations  he  had 
committed.  The  father  said  he  cautioned  the  boy 
about  destroying  property,  but  he  did  not  obey  him. 
The  whole  trouble  came  from  the  fact  that  he  failed  to 
prevent  his  boy  from  roaming  the  streets  on  the  night 
of  Hallowe'en.  There  is  something  wrong  with  the 
fiber  of  a  parent  who  permits  his  children  to  go  over 
the  city  and  engage  in  the  destruction  of  property  at 
any  time.  It  is  a  poor  way  to  instruct  a  youth  in  the 
duties  of  citizenship.  An  adult  who  places  tempta- 
tion in  the  way  of  a  child  is  more  guilty  than  the  child. 

To  attempt  to  control  children  by  purchase  is  to 
defeat  the  end  desired.  To  elicit  from  a  child  his  best 
efforts  in  school  by  this  method  often  leads  to  bitter 
disappointment.  It  is  folly  for  the  parent  to  promise 
his  child  money,  jewelry,  fine  clothes,  etc.,  if  he  will 
make  a  certain  grade  in  school,  or  pass  an  examination. 
The  thought  and  interest  of  the  child  is  centered  upon 
the  wrong  thing.  The  superintendent  in  a  village 
school  gave  a  special  examination  for  advanced  stand- 
ing in  the  school.  Before  the  examination,  a  little  girl 
told  him  that  her  mother  had  promised  her  a  diamond 
ring,  a  watch,  and  a  pony  if  she  passed  the  examination. 
The  child  was  of  average  ability,  and  the  examina- 
tion required  unusual  ability,  because  all  pupils  who 
passed  the  examination  were  to  be  given  the  privilege 
of  skipping  a  grade.  Under  the  circumstances  it  was 
quite  evident  that  the  girl  would  probably  fail,  which  she 
did.  The  disappointment  of  a  child  failing  to  pass  an 


254  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

examination  where  so  much  was  at  stake  can  well  be 
imagined. 

The  Wild-Oats  Doctrine.  There  is  too  large  a 
following  among  parents  of  the  "wild-oats"  doctrine. 
There  is  a  feeling  with  some  that  a  boy  who  is  way- 
ward is  destined  to  grow  into  a  remarkably  sturdy 
man,  and  if  he  has  not  these  inclinations,  he  is  destined 
to  be  a  "sissy."  Teachers  often  exhibit  this  conviction 
in  their  glorification  of  the  "excellent  qualities"  of  the 
unruly  child.  I  have  seen  parents  so  misled  by  this 
view  that  they  would  advise  their  children  "to  do  some- 
thing" and  be  "like  a  boy."  A  father  annoyed  his 
son  so  much  by  these  taunts  until  he  began  to  "do 
things"  in  real  earnest,  but  his  conduct  failed  to  take 
that  lovely  sturdy  course  his  father  had  in  mind.  In 
the  sophomore  year  of  the  high  school  he  contracted  a 
first-class  case  of  backsliding,  and  in  spite  of  all  the 
argument  the  father  could  muster  the  boy  drifted 
away  from  the  school  and  became  a  bum  of  the  com- 
monest type.  Human  life  is  too  precious  a  thing  with 
which  to  trifle.  The  father,  of  course,  blamed  the 
school  and  the  community  for  the  ruin  of  his  boy.  It 
is  seldom  that  a  boy  fails  to  make  good  that  it  is  not 
the  fault  of  "the  system"  or  "poor  teachers."  One  of 
the  most  contemptible  of  men  is  the  man  who  will, 
through  his  own  stupidity,  lead  his  child  astray,  and 
then  berate  his  teachers  and  the  community  for  his 
downfall.  No  man  is  the  stronger  by  having  com- 
mitted a  wrong,  but  he  is  just  a  little  weaker  each 
time  to  resist  temptation.  Any  weak  specimen  of 


THE  PARENT'S  RESPONSIBILITY          255 

humanity  can  yield  to  temptation,  but  only  a  strong 
and  sturdy  man  can  resist  it. 

The  public  gives  too  great  attention  to  men  who 
get  out  of  the  gutter  or  the  prison  to  tell  within  a  few 
weeks  after  their  "change  of  heart"  how  they  have  ex- 
tricated themselves  from  the  slime  and  filth  of  dissipa- 
tion. Such  men  should  place  a  considerable  period  of 
years  between  themselves  and  the  old  life  and  then 
tell  how  hard  the  effort  has  been  to  break  the  habits 
of  evil.  Eternity  is  pretty  well  populated  with  men 
who  have  made  their  boasts  but  have  found  that  the 
old  life  has  woven  a  net  about  them  that  they  cannot 
escape.  These  men  give  the  young  the  wrong  impres- 
sion of  these  dangers;  where  one  man  goes  down  to 
the  lowest  depths  and  returns  to  the  practice  of 
Christian  ideals  there  are  thousands  who  do  not  and 
who  cannot;  escapes  are  the  rarest  accidents.  "The 
chains  of  habit  are  too  strong  to  be  felt  until  they  are 
too  strong  to  be  broken." 

Appreciation  of  Education.  The  parent  needs  a 
thorough  appreciation  of  education  as  an  asset  for  his 
children.  The  child  is  not  likely  to  strive  for  an 
education  if  his  parents  undervalue  its  importance. 
One  of  the  greatest  misfortunes  that  can  befall  a  child 
is  to  drop  out  of  school  before  he  has  received  a  good 
common-school  education.  The  necessity  for  general 
education  increases  as  business  expands.  There  is 
little  room  in  the  business  world  today  for  the  ignorant 
man,  and  what  opportunities  yet  exist  are  diminishing 
each  year.  The  boy  who  leaves  school  at  an  early  age 


256  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

will  find  it  exceedingly  difficult  to  hold  his  place  in  the 
world  against  those  who  are  better  equipped  by  train- 
ing. Parents  often  ask  for  permits  for  their  children 
to  work  before  they  have  reached  the  upper  grades; 
the  reason  they  give  is  that  they  need  the  child's 
contribution  to  support  the  family.  No  child  should 
be  required  to  yield  his  opportunities  for  an  education 
for  the  sake  of  supporting  or  helping  to  support  other 
members  of  the  family;  every  child  has  his  future 
before  him;  he  will  have  in  a  few  years  members  in  a 
family  of  his  own  to  support;  their  welfare,  their 
happiness,  and  their  future  will  depend  upon  him,  and 
no  claim,  however  valid,  should  deprive  him  of  his 
opportunity  to  equip  himself  as  fully  as  possible  to 
discharge  his  duties  as  the  head  of  a  family  in  the 
future.  Statistics  show  that  a  boy  is  paid  a  liberal 
wage — a  wage  greater  than  men  receive  as  workers  in 
our  best  industries — for  every  day  he  attends  school. 
It  is  never  a  question  of  a  child  having  as  much  educa- 
tion as  his  parents;  it  is  never  a  question  whether  he 
has  "paid  for  his  raising."  The  parent  and  the  com- 
munity owe  the  child  the  best  equipment  for  life  they 
can  provide.  Communities  at  times  view  their  duties 
in  the  wrong  light;  they  consider  that  they  have  been 
very  charitable  toward  their  children  when  they  have 
furnished  them  educational  opportunities;  the  com- 
munity does  only  its  duty  by  its  children.  After  all, 
one  generation  and  a  single  community  contributes 
very  little  of  the  aggregate  of  advantages  enjoyed  by 
children  of  the  present  day;  these  advantages  are  the 


THE  PARENT'S  RESPONSIBILITY          257 

results  of  a  hundred  generations.  Our  liberties  go  all 
the  way  back  to  the  early  days  of  absolute  rulers; 
every  man  who  has  made  a  sacrifice,  however  small,  is 
our  creditor.  Children  cannot  pay  the  present  genera- 
tion for  what  they  have  enjoyed;  they  cannot  pay  all 
to  whom  they  are  indebted — most  of  them  have  been 
dead  a  thousand  years — but  they  are  obligated  to 
give  to  the  next  generation  the  same  advantages  they 
have  enjoyed  plus  whatever  additional  advantages 
they  may  be  able  to  contribute;  this  is  the  way  of 
progress. 

The  Parent's  First  Interest.  The  training  of  the 
child  is  the  first  duty  of  the  parent.  The  interest  of 
the  child  should  be  above  one's  club,  greater  than  one's 
lodge,  and  greater  than  one's  old  associates.  Some  chil- 
dren receive  too  little  consideration  in  the  home. 
There  is  too  much  cut  glass  won  by  the  mother  at  card 
parties,  too  many  social  obligations  which  crowd  out 
the  interests  of  the  child.  There  is  a  story  told  of  a 
boy  who  was  found  by  a  policeman  on  the  street  after 
the  curfew;  the  policeman  said,  "Sonny,  you  must 
either  go  home  or  go  to  jail."  "Well,"  said  the  boy, 
"I'll  go  to  jail  then;  pa's  gone  to  the  club,  ma's  gone 
to  a  euchre  party,  Bud's  out  walking  with  his  girl,  and 
Sis  is  at  the  theater  with  her  beau,  and  they  left  me 
and  the  dog  at  home."  The  home  is  the  logical  place 
for  the  child  to  be  trained  for  many  of  the  most 
important  duties  of  life;  there  has  never  been  a  substi- 
tute provided  which  can  take  the  place  of  a  proper 
home.  We  may  provide  amusements  and  social 


258  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

centers  for  children,  but  to  the  extent  that  these  can 
be  provided  in  the  home,  to  that  extent  will  they 
yield  the  highest  return.  If  a  boy  is  determined  to 
play  cards,  it  is  better  to  play  them  at  home  than  to 
play  with  questionable  associates  in  some  old  box  car 
or  back  alley.  The  tactful  parent  will  have  a  much 
greater  opportunity  to  lead  him  to  appreciate  some- 
thing better  than  a  game  of  cards.  There  is  no  home 
which  should  be  too  fine  and  well-kept  for  the  play 
and  the  games  of  the  child.  Fine  carpets,  delicate 
draperies,  velvety  lawns,  and  the  like  are  beautiful, 
but  they  are  not  to  be  compared  with  hearty,  romping 
children. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Discuss  the  influence  of  the  home  life  upon  the  education 
of  the  child. 

2.  How  does  the  home  contribute  to  the  physical  vigor  of 
the  child?    In  what  manner  does  this  affect  the  progress  of  the 
child  in  school? 

3.  In  what  manner  does  the  control  of  the  parent  influence 
the  conduct  of  the  child  in  school? 

4.  Discuss  the  influence  of  the  parent's  example  upon  the 
child. 

5.  How   does   the   parent   influence   the   child's   attitude 
toward  truth,  honesty,  and  uprightness? 

6.  Where  does  the  child  get  his  first  lessons  in  politics  and 
religion?    How  do  you  account  for  the  fact  that  most  children 
form  very  early  a  strong  conviction  with  respect  to  politics,  but 
have  in  many  cases  scarcely  any  conviction  with  respect  to 
religion? 

7.  Explain  the  effect  of  irregular  attendance  at  school. 
How  does  this  influence  the  attitude  of  the  child  toward  school? 


THE  PARENT'S  RESPONSIBILITY          259 

To  what  extent  do  you  think  the  parent  is  responsible  for 
nonattendance? 

8.  Why  should  the  teacher  not  admit  pupils  to  school  who 
are  very  much  under  age?    What  disadvantage  is  this  to  the 
child? 

9.  In  what  respects  should  the  parent  know  his  own  child? 
In  what  ways  are  parents  often  deceived? 

10.  How  do  the  habits  and  practices  of  the  child  outside  of 
school  affect  his  work? 

11.  How  does  the  parent  attempt  good  things  hi  poor  ways? 

12.  Why  do  some  parents  believe  in  the  "wild-oats  doctrine"? 
Show  what  evils  usually  follow  this  course? 

13.  How  does  the  parent's  appreciation  of  education  and  the 
school  influence  the  child? 

14.  Show  how  the  vital  interests  of  the  child  are  sometimes 
subordinated  to  the  social  interests  of  the  parent. 


CHAPTER  XV 
UPPER-GRADE  READING 

Divisions  of  Reading.  Most  pupils  in  the  public 
schools  are  taught  reading  as  a  class  exercise  for  eight 
years.  The  problem  of  the  teacher  is  different  in  the 
upper  grades  from  that  in  the  lower  grades.  One 
might  divide  the  eight  years  into  two  parts,  placing 
in  one  division  grades  one  to  four  inclusive,  and  in 
the  other  division  grades  five  to  eight.  In  the  first 
four  years  the  teacher's  aim  is  the  mastery  of  the 
mechanics  of  reading.  In  the  last  four  years  the 
teacher  strives  to  use  this  symbolism  mastered  in  the 
first  four  years,  for  the  enrichment  of  the  life  of  the 
pupils.  This  idea  is  frequently  expressed  by  teachers 
in  the  saying  that,  "In  the  first  four  years  a  child  is 
learning  to  read,  while  in  the  last  four  years  he  is 
reading  to  learn."  This  statement  is  hardly  even  a 
half  truth,  however;  from  the  very  beginning  a  child 
learns  through  his  reading,  and  one  never  ceases  to 
learn  to  read. 

It  is  readily  seen  that  the  teacher  in  the  upper 
grades  is  teaching  the  pupil  "how  to  read."  His 
method  of  attack  is  not  the  same  as  that  of  the  teacher 
in  the  lower  grades.  Pupils  in  the  lower  grades  must 
be  given  much  practice  in  reading  to  "learn  to  read" 
in  the  sense  in  which  we  use  this  expression;  but  in 

260 


UPPER-GRADE  READING  261 

the  upper  grades  the  aim  of  the  teacher  is  always 
defeated  by  an  attempt  to  read  a  great  quantity. 
The  reading  here  is  intensive,  while  in  the  other  case 
it  is  extensive. 

Purposes  of  Reading.  The  purpose  of  reading  is 
almost  identical  with  that  of  writing.  It  is  said  too 
often  that  the  only  aim  of  reading  is  to  get  the  thought. 
If  one  gets  merely  the  cold  meaning  from  a  piece,  he 
loses  the  best  to  be  had  from  reading.  One  must  get 
feeling  and  inspiration  as  well  He  must  experience 
in  as  full  a  measure  as  possible  the  emotional  thrill 
that  the  author  experienced,  if  he  is  to  get  the  best 
from  reading.  It  is  this  craving  of  the  feeling  for 
expression  that  creates  the  best  that  we  read  just  as  it 
is  the  yearning  of  the  same  feeling  for  expression  that 
creates  the  best  in  music.  The  thought  of  a  song 
could  be  expressed  in  a  few  words,  but  not  its  feeling, 
not  that  element  in  it  which  causes  us  to  sit  time  after 
time  and  listen  and  be  thrilled  by  a  song  we  have 
heard  over  and  over  and  whose  thought  is  simple  and 
familiar. 

Reading  is  valuable  as  an  English  exercise,  apart 
from  the  thought  and  feeling  it  yields.  In  eight  years 
pupils  should  become  familiar  with  the  words  of 
English  in  common  use.  They  should  become  very 
accurate  in  the  pronunciation  of  these  words,  and  they 
should  have  accurate  knowledge  of  their  meaning. 
The  incorrect  pronunciations  of  words  heard  every- 
where convinces  one  that  the  school  should  make  a 
greater  effort  to  fix  correct  pronunciation.  A  visit  to 


262  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

a  few  reading  classes  will  reveal  to  a  close  observer  the 
source  of  our  present  inaccuracy.  The  teacher  per- 
mits inaccuracies  in  pronunciations,  either  because  of 
carelessness  or  ignorance.  The  teacher  who  will 
resolve  to  study  an  upper-grade  reading  lesson  every 
day  before  attempting  to  teach  it,  and  will  resolve 
further  to  pass  no  word  whose  pronunciation  is  in 
doubt  until  it  has  been  settled  by  reference  to  a 
standard  dictionary  will  have  very  few  mispronounced 
words  in  the  class.  Pupils  will  go  out  from  such  a 
school  with  something  of  real  value  wholly  apart 
from  the  thought  or  other  considerations.  The 
presence  of  a  large  foreign  element  hi  our  country 
makes  attention  to  this  element  in  reading  very 
necessary. 

One  should  get  from  reading  an  excellent  training 
of  the  speaking  voice.  Of  course  for  this,  as  for  much 
of  the  rest  to  be  obtained  from  reading,  oral  reading  is 
indispensable  A  good  voice  that  is  able  to  carry 
pleasing  inflections  is  a  great  asset.  The  reading 
recitation  should  train  it. 

False  Notions  about  Reading.  Many  teachers  of 
upper-grade  reading  do  not  believe  in  oral  reading. 
Their  thought  is  that  reading  is  a  silent  process.  Such 
teachers  see  nothing  in  reading  but  mere  thought- 
getting.  Their  recitations  are  largely  quiz  exercises. 
They  are  likely  to  defend  themselves  in  this  by  saying 
that  one  seldom  reads  aloud  and  hence  needs  no 
training  in  oral  reading.  If  we  should  grant  that 
this  is  true,  we  must  still  consider  the  fact  that  one 


UPPER-GRADE  READING  263 

is  trained  to  read  silently  very  largely  through  oral 
reading.  We  have  a  pupil  explain  a  problem  in 
arithmetic  very  carefully  in  order  that  we  may  follow 
the  order  of  his  thought  process.  We  have  him  follow 
a  definite  plan  of  analysis  in  order  to  train  his  mind 
in  a  certain  manner  of  reasoning.  We  know,  too, 
that  a  pupil  will  seldom  explain  a  problem  aloud  that 
he  works,  after  leaving  school,  but  in  order  to  know 
his  thought  processes  we  must  have  oral  explanations 
and  analyses.  It  is  for  the  same  reason  that  oral 
reading  is  vitally  necessary. 

It  is  not  true  that  it  is  unimportant  what  we  read. 
This  is  no  nearer  the  truth  than  that  it  is  unimportant 
what  we  sing.  The  supposition  that  the  material  used 
in  reading  is  unimportant  has  led  many  teachers  to 
abandon  good  reading  books  for  periodicals,  current 
events,  newspapers,  shop  plans,  and  the  like.  All  such 
material  lacks  that  higher  element  for  which  we  teach 
upper-grade  reading,  and  which  has  caused  pieces  of 
literature  to  live  through  the  centuries.  Most  of  the 
material  in  current  magazines  and  papers  will  be 
forgotten  hi  a  few  weeks.  It  is  certainly  not  worth 
all  of  the  time  of  the  reading  class.  There  is  a  type 
of  reading  book  now  very  commonly  used  as  supple- 
mentary material  that  serves  very  poorly  the  great 
purpose  of  the  teacher  of  upper-grade  reading.  These 
books  while  excellent  for  history,  geography,  and 
nature  study  are  not  the  best  for  reading. 

It  is  often  said  that  expression  in  reading  follows 
thought.  The  teacher  who  holds  this  opinion  resorts 


to  additional  questions  when  a  pupil  fails  to  read 
with  expression.  A  little  reflection  should  show  us 
the  fallacy  of  this  claim.  The  scarcity  of  good  oral 
readers  is  well  known.  Very  often  one  sees  a  reader 
fail  utterly  to  read  even  moderately  well  his  own 
thought.  In  a  great  normal  school  in  an  earlier  day 
applicants  for  admittance  were  handed  a  second 
reader  with  a  selection  designated  to  be  read  to  the 
examiner.  Very  few  were  found  who  could  read  this 
simple  matter  creditably  One  who  has  drilled  a  few 
senior  classes  in  class-night  plays  realizes  how  much 
drill  is  necessary  to  get  natural  expression  for  so 
simple  a  sentence  as,  "Mr.  Brown,  come  in  and  take 
a  chair."  Pupils  have  not  learned  to  read,  to  express, 
and  to  enjoy  the  thought  of  another.  This  is  a  part 
of  the  problem  of  the  teacher  of  upper-grade  reading. 

There  are  those  who  admit  that  a  pupil  may  not 
express  what  he  thoroughly  understands,  but  who 
think  that  a  pupil  will  always  express  what  he  feels. 
Such  teachers  attempt  in  their  classes  to  stir  the  feel- 
ings of  the  pupils  as  a  means  of  securing  expression. 
As  a  conclusive  argument  for  this  view  it  is  claimed 
that  a  pupil  never  makes  a  mistake  in  expression  on 
the  playground,  because  he  is  filled  with  the  thought, 
feeling,  and  motive.  This  argument,  however,  is  not 
conclusive,  and  it  fails  to  take  into  account  other 
elements  present  in  the  reading  class. 

Why  Expression  Does  Not  Follow  Thought  and 
Feeling.  We  must  recognize  that  the  thought  and 
feeling  we  encounter  in  the  reading  class  is  not  that 


UPPER-GRADE  READING  265 

of  the  pupa.  It  is  something  that  has  been  taken 
from  the  life  of  another  and  transferred  to  a  printed 
page.  The  pupil  must  get  this  thought  and  feeling 
from  the  printed  symbols.  This  is  a  very  different 
problem  from  expressing  one's  own  thought  from  his 
life  experience.  We  have  to  recognize,  too,  that  the 
form  of  expression  is  not  the  pupil's.  The  thought 
and  feeling  might  be  quite  familiar  to  the  pupil,  but 
the  symbols  used  are  different  from  those  that  the 
pupil  would  naturally  use.  No  two  persons  would  tell 
a  story  in  exactly  the  same  form,  hence  the  teacher 
has  here  a  distinct  problem  hi  reading.  It  is  to  get 
the  thought  and  feeling  and  to  express  them  in  the 
exact  words  of  another.  If  one  should  take  a  selec- 
tion found  in  the  usual  reader  and  examine  it  care- 
fully, he  would  be  impressed  with  the  long  involved 
sentences,  the  clauses  and  parenthetical  expressions 
and  the  transposed  order,  and  many  other  things 
wholly  different  from  the  pupil's  customary  way  of 
seeing  and  expressing  things.  This  condition  creates 
a  distinct  problem  for  the  teacher  of  upper-grade 
reading.  In  the  study  of  poetry  this  problem  becomes 
even  greater.  This  accounts  for  the  difficulty  encoun- 
tered by  the  pupil  in  reading  poetry,  but  the  teacher 
must  train  the  pupil  to  read  poetry  naturally  in  spite 
of  its  unnatural  order  and  peculiarities,  wholly  different 
from  one's  current  speech.  We  must  recognize  dis- 
tinctly that  written  language  has  its  own  style.  This 
fact  accounts  for  much  of  the  difficulty  that  the 
teacher  finds  in  teaching  reading. 


266  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

The  type  of  feeling  a  pupil  finds  in  the  reading 
lesson  may  be  as  new  to  him  as  is  the  thought.  People 
differ  as  much  in  feeling  as  they  do  in  their  intellect 
and  their  moral  expression.  Some  writers  have  a  very 
unusual  depth  of  feeling.  This  may  be  quite  outside 
the  experience  of  the  pupil.  The  problem  of  the 
teacher  here  is  to  lead  the  pupil  to  experience  some- 
thing of  that  depth  of  feeling  that  the  author  expe- 
rienced, and  not  only  to  experience  it,  but  to  get  the 
appropriate  expression  in  reading.  It  is  this  attempt 
at  the  expression  of  feeling  and  of  the  experiencing 
of  it  that  constitutes  the  essential  value  of  reading. 
A  teacher  who  succeeds  in  a  measure  in  creating 
in  the  pupil  that  thought  and  feeling  experienced 
by  the  author  has  accomplished  the  chief  end 
that  was  to  be  served  when  the  selection  was  pro- 
duced. 

Power  of  expression  comes  through  practice.  No 
pupil  or  class  can  hope  to  become  expert  in  expression 
in  a  short  time.  It  takes  careful  study  and  practice 
to  become  skilled  in  the  art  of  expression.  Voice 
flexibility  and  control  are  necessary.  The  teacher  of 
upper-grade  reading  who  attempts  to  get  good  expres- 
sion will  soon  discover  that  a  great  many  pupils  who 
have  the  thought  and  feeling  of  a  selection  lack  the 
voice-control  and  the  flexibility  of  voice  necessary  to 
express  in  a  natural  manner  the  essence  of  the  selec- 
tion. This  voice-control  and  flexibility  are  to  be 
acquired.  In  the  reading  class  it  constitutes  one  of 
the  teacher's  problems. 


UPPER-GRADE  READING  267 

How  to  Get  Expression.  First  we  must  recognize 
that  expression  is  an  art  to  be  acquired.  It  is  to  be 
acquired  just  as  other  things  are  acquired.  We  must 
start  with  the  simple  elements  of  it  and  proceed  to 
the  more  complex.  We  do  this  in  music,  in  drawing, 
in  writing,  in  arithmetic,  and  everything  else  we  study 
in  school,  and  we  must  do  it  in  expression  in  the  read- 
ing class.  This  means  that  first  of  all  the  teacher  of 
upper-grade  reading  must  classify  at  the  very  begin- 
ning the  selections  found  in  the  book.  The  selections 
studied  at  first  should  be  among  the  simplest  and 
those  learned  last  should  be  the  most  complex  found 
in  the  book.  A  teacher  who  attempts  to  read  a 
selection  like  Mark  Antony's  oration  over  the  body  of 
Caesar  could  not  possibly  secure  even  fairly  good 
results.  The  form  of  expression  is  so  complex  that 
pupils  not  accustomed  to  careful  study  of  the  forms  of 
expression  would  of  necessity  read  in  a  mechanical  and 
meaningless  fashion.  Think  of  the  volumes  crowded 
into  the  seven  simple  words,  "Revenge!  About!  Seek! 
Burn!  Fire!  Kill!  Slay!" 

A  teacher  who  has  a  class  weak  in  expression  should 
be  very  careful  not  to  attempt  to  read  a  great  quan- 
tity. Practice  reading  a  small  amount.  Read  and 
re-read  this  until  pupils  acquire  the  ability  to  read  a 
small  amount  well.  The  author  of  a  prominent  series 
of  readers  makes  a  statement  in  the  preface  of  the 
upper-grade  books,  which  it  would  pay  every  teacher 
of  upper-grade  reading  to  keep  constantly  in  mind;  it 
is  this:  "A  pupil  who  has  learned  to  read  well  one 


268  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

selection  has  taken  a  long  step  toward  becoming  a 
good  reader."  Be  sure  to  have  the  pupils  learn  to 
read  some  selection  well,  regardless  of  the  amount  of 
time  it  requires  to  do  it.  It  will  take  a  shorter  time 
to  read  the  next  selection  and  less  and  less  time  will 
be  required  for  succeeding  selections.  In  the  end  time 
will  be  saved. 

We  must  work  consciously  for  the  formal  side  of 
expression.  This  form  is  very  mechanical,  almost  as 
mechanical  as  the  turning  of  a  crank,  but  pupils  who 
acquire  the  ability  to  read  with  expression  must  study 
this  formal  side,  and  they  must  be  led  to  observe  some 
of  these  forms,  it  may  be  mechanically,  until  these 
forms  are  used  unconsciously  in  the  expression  of 
thought.  One  of  the  things  that  we  must  give  atten- 
tion to  is  word-grouping.  Pupils  quite  generally  in 
upper-grade  reading  are  weak  in  this  respect.  Study 
with  the  pupils  the  particular  group  of  words  that 
belong  together.  Separate  these  groups  by  distinct 
pauses,  regardless  of  punctuation  marks;  place  pencil 
marks  between  the  groups  if  necessary  and  practice 
reading  these  groups  until  the  pupils  read  with 
distinctness. 

Attention  must  be  given  to  the  pitch  of  the  voice. 
The  pitch  of  the  voice  aside  from  what  is  said,  conveys 
a  certain  feeling.  It  is  impossible  to  get  certain  forms 
of  expression  without  a  certain  pitch  of  voice.  The 
teacher  must  recognize  this  and  lead  pupils  to  adjust 
the  pitch  of  voice  to  the  character  of  the  feeling 
expressed.  Speed  or  rate  of  reading  have  much  to  do 


UPPER-GRADE  READING  269 

with  expression.  It  is  impossible  to  get  certain  forms 
of  expression  until  the  rate  of  reading  has  been  adjusted. 
If  pupils  are  reading  a  selection  pertaining  to  death, 
sadness,  sorrow,  or  melancholy  the  rate  must  be  slow. 
To  read  rapidly  in  cases  of  the  kind  mentioned  is  to 
render  it  impossible  to  get  the  expression.  The 
teacher  must  watch  the  inflection  and  emphasis  if  she 
hopes  to  secure  a  good  quality  of  expression. 

There  is  so  much  to  the  formal  side  of  expression 
that  it  would  pay  any  teacher  of  upper-grade  reading 
who  is  interested  in  good  expression  to  secure  a  brief 
but  carefully  written  book  on  expression.  Careful 
study  of  this  book  will  enable  the  teacher  to  solve  a 
great  many  problems  that  now  seem  very  difficult. 

How  to  Get  Thought.  The  teacher  must  follow 
the  same  plan  in  thought-getting  that  was  suggested 
for  expression.  The  book  must  be  examined  carefully 
and  the  selections  classified  in  the  order  of  their 
difficulty.  If  one  should  examine  the  average  book 
in  upper-grade  reading,  he  should  find  that  selections 
differ  very  greatly  in  respect  to  the  depth  of  thought 
and  also  the  means  by  which  the  thought  is  to  be 
obtained.  In  some  selections  the  thought  is  on  the 
surface.  It  is  not  necessary  to  consult  outside  sources 
or  even  to  look  up  many  words.  "Kentucky  Belle," 
"Annabel  Lee,"  and  "Death  of  the  Flowers,"  are 
selections  of  this  character.  These  are  good  selections 
with  which  to  begin  the  year. 

There  are  other  selections  whose  thought  and 
inspiration  must  be  secured  to  some  extent  outside  of 


270  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

the  selection.  Any  attempt  to  master  such  selections 
without  going  beyond  them  is  destined  to  fail.  The 
particular  type  of  knowledge  required  depends  upon 
the  character  of  the  selection.  Some  selections 
require  historical  knowledge.  "Old  Ironsides,"  "The 
Last  Leaf,"  "Paul  Revere's  Ride,"  "Winkelried," 
"Julius  Caesar,"  and  "Evangeline"  are  selections  of 
this  character.  This  historical  setting  must  be  amply 
provided  before  the  selection  is  attempted.  When 
this  has  been  done  a  large  part  of  the  difficulty  in 
thought-getting  and  expression  will  have  been  mas- 
tered. Geographical  knowledge  is  sometimes  neces- 
sary as  a  foundation  for  the  reading.  The  map  is  used 
too  sparingly  in  most  reading  classes.  Often  the 
ordinary  map  used  for  geography  does  not  serve  the 
purpose.  In  such  cases  the  teacher  should  make  a 
sketch  for  use  in  the  reading  class.  "Horatius  at  the 
Bridge,"  "Lady  of  the  Lake,"  "Waterloo"  are  types 
of  selections  that  need  a  geographical  setting.  It  may 
be  that  a  selection  such  as  "Waterloo"  requires  both 
historical  and  geographical  knowledge.  Scientific 
knowledge  is  sometimes  necessary  for  the  proper 
understanding  of  a  selection.  Examples  of  this  need 
are:  "The  Spacious  Firmament,"  "Twinkle,  Twinkle, 
Little  Star."  In  other  cases  specific  knowledge  of 
the  life  of  a  person  or  of  some  particular  thing  promi- 
nent in  the  selection  is  needed.  No  one  can  read  the 
little  poem  of  the  "Skylark"  with  any  understanding 
until  he  has  become  informed  as  to  the  habits  of  this 
bird.  Poems  relating  to  the  sea  necessitate  knowledge 


UPPER-GRADE  READING  271 

of  the  sea  as  a  proper  basis  for  the  study.  In  some 
cases  it  seems  that  the  great  need  of  the  pupil  for 
proper  appreciation  and  understanding  of  the  selection 
is  more  life  experience.  It  is  at  this  point  that  many 
authors  have  failed  in  writing  for  children.  They 
forget  that  children  have  not  had  those  mature  expe- 
riences which  adults  have  had  and  that  they  cannot 
respond  to  tl^e  feeling  embodied  in  such  selections 
until  they  have  seen  more  of  life. 

The  Reading  Recitation.  Too  many  reading  reci- 
tations have  no  aim  or  purpose.  No  preparation  has 
been  made  for  them;  nobody  seems  to  be  conscious 
that  anything  is  really  necessary.  First  of  all  the 
teacher  must  make  very  careful  preparation  for  the 
reading  recitation.  Such  preparation  is  just  as  indis- 
pensable as  the  preparation  for  teaching  a  geography 
or  history  lesson.  The  teacher  must  become  very 
familiar  with  the  lesson  itself,  and  such  materials  must 
be  provided  as  are  going  to  be  needed.  These  materials 
will  often  include  pictures,  maps,  and  drawings,  and 
it  may  be  at  times  an  experiment  of  some  sort. 

Pupils  in  the  reading  class  should  be  given  much 
practice  in  oral  reading.  Mere  reading  or  the  calling 
of  words  is  a  worthless  performance.  In  poetry  the 
teacher  should  strive  to  get  rid  of  the  jingle  that  is  so 
common  in  reading  poetry.  As  the  teacher  gets 
word-grouping  and  expression  and  all  that  has  been 
suggested  above,  the  mechanical  jingle  found  in  the 
reading  of  poetry  will  disappear  like  magic.  In  the 
class  the  teacher  should  strive  constantly  for  clear- 


272  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

ness.  A  very  low  standard  for  the  reading  recitation 
is  the  ability  of  the  listener,  without  a  book,  to  follow. 
Yet  scores  of  reading  recitations  do  not  meet  this  low 
standard.  In  the  reading  recitation  it  is  not  necessary 
to  spend  three-fourths  of  the  time  questioning  the 
children  about  the  thought  of  the  selection  before 
any  reading  is  attempted.  Questions  concerning  the 
thought  should  be  worked  into  the  recitation  as  the 
reading  proceeds  from  paragraph  to  paragraph  or  from 
stanza  to  stanza. 

The  teacher's  criticism  should  relate  to  vital  things. 
Most  of  the  criticism  that  one  now  sees  in  the  reading 
class  has  reference  to  bodily  attitudes,  looking  off  the 
book,  holding  the  book  at  a  certain  distance  or  angle, 
the  miscalling  of  words,  or  reading  too  fast  or  too 
slow.  These  things  are  important  in  their  way,  but 
they  are  of  minor  importance  when  compared  with 
other  things  essential  to  a  good  reading  recitation. 
Many  teachers  fall  into  the  error  of  needless  denning. 
Pupils  are  asked  to  define  expressions  with  which 
every  child  is  familiar.  Such  a  performance  is  a  clear 
waste  of  time.  William  Hawley  Smith  puts  this  error 
into  bold  relief  in  the  example  that  he  gives  of  a 
teacher  who  asked  a  boy  to  tell  the  meaning  of  "lean- 
ing against  a  tree."  After  a  moment's  hesitation  the 
boy  said,  "Why,  it  just  means  to  lean  against  a  tree." 

The  assignment  for  the  reading  class  should  be 
definite.  It  should  be  just  as  definite  as  the  assign- 
ment in  an  arithmetic  class.  To  say  to  pupils,  "You 
may  read  just  as  far  as  you  can,"  is  a  loose  and  profit- 


UPPER-GRADE  READING  273 

less  way  to  make  an  assignment  to  a  reading  class. 
Have  the  pupils  check  words  to  be  looked  up,  passages 
for  special  study,  words  for  special  emphasis  and 
passages  for  special  reading.  Make  some  definite 
requirement  in  each  assignment.  With  a  weak  class 
the  assignment  should  be  made  short.  An  attempt 
to  read  a  whole  poem  of  eight  to  twenty  stanzas  in 
one  lesson  is  not  likely  to  yield  anything  of  profit. 
Often  eight  to  sixteen  lines  of  a  poem  may  make  a 
sufficient  assignment;  in  prose  often  one  page  is  suf- 
ficient. Never  should  the  teacher  attempt  more  than 
can  be  read  well.  If  this  standard  is  strictly  adhered 
to,  the  time  will  soon  come  when  the  class  will  be 
able  to  read  a  sufficient  quantity  in  every  recitation. 
Some  General  Suggestions.  The  teacher  can  well 
afford  to  let  the  taste  for  reading  take  care  of  itself. 
Pupils  will  soon  learn  to  like  reading  when  they  have 
been  taught  how  to  read  in  the  highest  sense.  It  is 
not  a  good  plan  to  have  pupils  commit  poems  or 
other  matter  to  be  recited  from  memory  until  they 
have  learned  to  read  these  selections  exceedingly  well. 
The  mere  recitation  of  the  words  of  a  poem  in  that 
mechanical  and  meaningless  fashion  that  one  hears  so 
frequently  is  not  only  a  waste  of  time  but  it  contributes 
very  largely  to  the  formation  of  bad  habits  in  reading. 
On  the  other  hand,  when  pupils  have  learned  to  read 
a  selection  with  excellent  expression,  then  the  com- 
mitting and  reciting  is  a  very  profitable  exercise. 


274  PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  does  the  purpose  of  the  teacher  of  upper-grade 
reading  differ  from  that  of  the  lower-grade  reading? 

2.  Show  that  thought  is  not  all  the  reader  should  get  from  a 
selection.     Mention   three  other   benefits   the   pupils   should 
receive  from  reading. 

3.  What  are  the  purposes  of  oral  reading  in  the  upper 
grades?    Show  that  the  kind  of  material  the  teacher  uses  in  the 
class  is  of  great  importance. 

4.  Why  is  expression  in  reading  often  difficult  even  when  the 
thought  is  clear?    Give  several  evidences  to  show  that  expression 
does  not  necessarily  follow  thought. 

5.  Why  is  expression  sometimes  difficult  when  the  pupil  has 
both  the  thought  and  the  feeling  of  the  selection? 

6.  Give  some  of  the  steps  by  which  expression  is  to  be 
acquired.    How  do  the  selections  in  a  reading  book  differ  in  the 
power  of  expression  necessary  to  read  them? 

7.  How  should  a  teacher  proceed  to  develop  power  of 
expression  with  a  weak  class?    How  will  the  gain  in  power  affect 
the  attitude  of  the  class  toward  reading? 

8.  What  is  meant  by  word-grouping  in  reading?    Show  the 
relation  of  the  pitch  of  the  voice  and  speed  to  the  emotional  ele- 
ment in  reading. 

9.  How  may  the  selections  in  a  reading  book  be  classified  on 
the  basis  of  the  thought? 

10.  What  are  the  different  kinds  of  knowledge  needed  to 
understand  certain  selections  in  reading? 

11.  Show  the  importance  of  daily  preparation  of  the  teacher 
for  teaching  a  reading  lesson. 

12.  What  should  be  the  character  of  the  teacher's  criticism 
in  the  reading  class? 

13.  How  should  the  teacher  make  the  reading  assignment? 

14.  What  attention  should  the  teacher  give  toward  cultivat- 
ing a  taste  for  reading? 


INDEX 


Adolescence,  37 

Annoyed,  being,  96 

Aptitudes,  variation  in,  152 

Assignment,  Ch.  VIII 
getting  it  from  the  text,  112 
importance  of,  108 
length  of,  119 
making  it  definite,  118 
preparation  of  pupils  for,  109 
preparation  of  teacher  for,  108 

Balance,  needed  in  the  teacher,  205 
Beautiful,  but  useless,  154 
Beginning,  importance  of,  14 
Blackboard,  passing  class  to,  73 

Capacity,  lacking  in,  199 
Child,  knowledge  of,  250 

of  the  poor,  197 

outside  of  school,  251 

unpromising,  189 

Children,  entering  too  young,  249 
Class,  developing  from,  145 

illustrations  of,  148 

management  of,  Ch.  V 

passing  to  the  board,  73 

position  of  teacher  to,  70 

seating  of,  69 

Communication,  evils  of,  57 
Community,  begin  where  it  is,  229 
Conclusions,  three  general,  42 
Conduct  of  the  teacher,  230 
Congeniality,  218 
Content  of  the  mind,  testing,  136 
Control,  ability  acquired,  34 
Co-operation,  parental,  46 
Course  of  study,  16 

illustrations  of  failure,  47 


Criticism,  nature  of,  178 

wrong  kinds  of,  180 
Cross  grain,  freedom  from,  210 

Details,  arranging,  25 
Direction,  proper,  vs.  driving,  149 
Discipline,  division  of  thesubject,48 
general    co-operation   necessary, 

48 

ignoring  the  question,  35 
importance  of,  33 
mistaken  notions  concerning,  43 
of  the  room,  Ch.  IV 
point  of  view  in,  Ch.  II 
relation   to   interest,  sanitation, 
skill  in    instruction,  weather, 
former   teacher,  44-46 
Diversity,  among  children,  3 
Doing,  learning  to  do  by,  143 

profit  through,  170 
Dramatization,  176 
Dreamer,  200 
Driving,  proper  direction  vs.,  149 

Education,    appreciation    of,    255 
Efficiency,  physical,  of  the  teacher, 

211 

Entertainment,  evil  of,  182 
Exceptions    to   the  rule,  Ch.  XI 
Excuses,  adolescence  and  other,  37 
Exercise,  relaxation,  65 
Experience  the    basis  of  learning, 

132 

Expression,  how  to  get  it,  267 
why  it  does  not  follow  feeling, 

264 

why  it  does  not  follow  thought, 
264 


275 


276 


INDEX 


Feeling,  why  expression  does  not 

follow  it,  264 
First  day,  preparation  for  it,  14 
Form,  does  not  determine  content, 
155 

the  conventional,  142 
Forms  and  illustrations,  138 
Freedom  from  cross  grain,  210 

illustrated  in  practice,  40 
Fundamentals,  importance  of,  8 

Good  things  attempted   in   poor 
ways,  252 

Habits,  personal,  215 
Hallowe  en,  dangers  of,  85 
Hiawatha,  7 
Holding  what  is  taught,  156 

Idleness,  prevention  of,  66 
Illustrations,  forms  and,  138 

free  from  misinterpretation,  135 

irrelevant,  135 

showing,  72 
Incentives,  124 
Individual,  studying  the,  153 
Information,  sources  of,  15 
Instruction,  everyday  problems  in, 
Ch.  DC 

reality  in,  139 
Interest,  question  of,  128 

the  first,  of  the  parent,  257 
Investigations,  long,  227 
Irony,  106 

Judgment,  avoid  hasty,  221 

Knowledge,  qualities  better  than, 
153 

Learning,  experience  the  basis  of, 

132 

to  do  by  doing,  143 
Light,  position  of  pupils  toward,  64 
Liking  the  subject,  151 


Mannerisms,  136 
Method,  124 

some  definite  needed,  125 

wasteful,  175 

Mind,  testing  the  content  of,  136 
Morning,  the  first,  25 

Parent,  complaining  to,  105 

conference  with,  105 

effect  of  attitude  on  the  child,  247 

example  of,  244 

first  interest  of,  257 

responsibility  for  attendance  at 
school,  248 

responsibility  for  control  of  the 
child,  243 

responsibility  for  moral  nature 
of  the  child,  242 

responsibility    for    the  physical 
nature  of  the  child,  241 

teacher's  relation  to,  105 
Pencils,  sharpening,  55 
Permission,  answering  without,  73 

no  communication  without,  56 
Pictures,  showing,  72 
Plan,  recitation  should  have  a,  160 
Play,  benefits  of,  87 
Playground,  management  of,  Ch. 
VI 

supervision  necessary,  82 
Power,  quantity  is  not,  131 
Praise,  effect  of,  123 
Preparation,  of  the  pupils,  77 

how  affected  by  habits  of  the 

teacher,  77 

Profit,  through  doing,  170 
Program,  9 
Punishment,  Ch.  VIE 

corporal,  97 

detention  as  a  means  of,  99 

illustrations  of  improper,  90-92 

isolation  as  a  means  of,  101 

low  grading  as,  94 

publicity  objectionable,  89 

pupils  invulnerable  to,  98 


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